Astrophysicists Puzzle Over Webb’s New Universe
Kristina Armitage/ Quanta Magazine
克里斯蒂娜·阿米蒂奇/广达杂志
When Charlotte Mason ponders cosmic mysteries, she likes to doodle.
当夏洛特·梅森思考宇宙奥秘时，她喜欢涂鸦。
“I am quite a visual person,” she said.
“我是一个非常注重视觉的人，”她说。
“I usually draw a lot of pictures trying to understand what’s going on.”
“我通常会画很多图，试图了解发生了什么。”
Mason, an astrophysicist at the Cosmic Dawn Center in Copenhagen, has lately been filling pages with sketches of “little red dots,” perplexing objects discovered by the hundreds in images from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
梅森是哥本哈根宇宙黎明中心的天体物理学家，最近他在书页上画满了“小红点”的草图，这些草图使詹姆斯·韦伯太空望远镜（JWST）图像中数百个发现的物体令人费解。
Little red dots were never seen before the telescope came online in 2022.
在该望远镜于 2022 年上线之前，从未见过小红点。
But we now know that they started to appear in significant numbers roughly 650 million years after the Big Bang.
但我们现在知道，它们在大爆炸后大约 6.5 亿年开始大量出现。
These dots are just one of the thrilling mysteries that have emerged from JWST’s observations of the early universe.
这些点只是 JWST 对早期宇宙的观测中发现的令人兴奋的谜团之一。
Others include black holes that seem impossibly large for their age, as well as ancient galaxies that defy what we thought we knew about the first billion years after the Big Bang.
其他包括相对于其年龄而言似乎大得不可思议的黑洞，以及与我们对大爆炸后第一个十亿年的认知相悖的古老星系。
At first, scientists were astounded: The universe revealed by JWST simply didn’t square with our understanding of astrophysics.
起初，科学家们感到震惊：JWST 揭示的宇宙根本不符合我们对天体物理学的理解。
Now, a wave of new theories offers tantalizing solutions — but which ones portray reality is an open question.
现在，一波新理论提供了诱人的解决方案——但哪些理论描绘了现实仍然是一个悬而未决的问题。
Recent ideas suggest that little red dots could be black holes cocooned in thick gas, possibly representing a completely new type of object called a black hole star, in which the tight shroud of gas emits light like a stellar atmosphere.
最近的想法表明，小红点可能是包裹在厚厚气体中的黑洞，可能代表一种称为黑洞星的全新物体，其中紧密的气体覆盖物像恒星大气一样发出光线。
“This would be my black hole,” Mason said, drawing a small circle and filling it in.
“这将是我的黑洞，”梅森说，画了一个小圆圈并将其填满。
“I might put a disk on it, because we think that’s where some of the emission comes from.” She slashed a line through the circle’s center.
“我可能会在上面放一个磁盘，因为我们认为这就是一些排放的来源。”她在圆圈的中心划了一条线。
“Then the kind of naïve picture is just this dense gas cloud around the black hole.” She drew a larger circle surrounding the object.
“那么，那种幼稚的画面就是黑洞周围的稠密气体云。”她在物体周围画了一个更大的圆圈。
But Mason thinks there may be more to these cosmic enigmas.
但梅森认为这些宇宙之谜可能还有更多。
She and colleagues recently analyzed the spectrum of light emitted by one little red dot.
她和同事最近分析了一个小红点发出的光谱。
If the dense-cloud picture is correct, then some of the light should have been altered from passing through the gas — but that’s not what they saw.
如果稠密云层的图像是正确的，那么一些光线在穿过气体时应该会发生变化——但这不是他们所看到的。
A sampling of the enigmatic little red dots that JWST has spotted in the early universe.
詹姆斯韦伯太空望远镜在早期宇宙中发现的神秘小红点的样本。
Courtesy of Jorryt Matthee.
由乔里特·马蒂提供。
Data from the EIGER/FRESCO surveys
来自 EIGER/FRESCO 调查的数据
“Now what do I do?
“现在我该怎么办？
Start again.
重新开始。
But now if I make my gas clumpy,” Mason said, drawing a new diagram with holes in the clouds surrounding the black hole, “I should be able to get [a signal] that looks closer.”
但现在，如果我让气体变成块状，”梅森画了一张新图表，其中黑洞周围的云层上有洞，“我应该能够得到看起来更近的[信号]。”
All around the world, researchers like Mason are eagerly piecing together JWST’s glimpses of the ancient cosmos to create a clearer picture of our universe’s beginnings.
在世界各地，像梅森这样的研究人员正急切地将 JWST 对古代宇宙的一瞥拼凑起来，以更清晰地了解宇宙的起源。
And like the photons that travel billions of light-years to reach us, new fragments are constantly falling into place.
就像光子穿越数十亿光年到达我们一样，新的碎片也在不断地就位。
The story of black holes has become more complicated thanks to JWST, which keeps spotting ancient black holes that are too big to explain with established theories — much too big.
由于 JWST 的出现，黑洞的故事变得更加复杂，它不断发现古老的黑洞，这些黑洞太大了，无法用既定的理论来解释——太大了。
Shortly after the Big Bang, the universe was largely featureless and smooth.
大爆炸后不久，宇宙基本上没有任何特征且光滑。
Then, just a few hundred million years later, “we already see billion-sun black holes growing,” said Jenny Greene, an astrophysicist at Princeton University.
然后，仅仅几亿年后，“我们已经看到了数十亿个太阳的黑洞在增长，”普林斯顿大学的天体物理学家珍妮·格林说。
“In order to get them that big so quickly, you have to do some gymnastics.”
“为了让它们这么快长这么大，你必须做一些体操。”
Scientists look at two key factors that influence a black hole’s size: how massive a black hole “seed” was when it originated, and how quickly these seeds grew after that.
科学家们研究了影响黑洞大小的两个关键因素：黑洞“种子”起源时的质量有多大，以及这些种子之后生长的速度有多快。
But it’s hard to explain how black holes either formed already big enough or grew fast enough to reach a billion times the mass of the sun in early cosmic times.
但很难解释黑洞如何在早期宇宙时代形成得足够大，或者生长得足够快，达到太阳质量的十亿倍。
In the modern universe, black holes form when the core of a massive star runs out of fuel and collapses.
在现代宇宙中，当大质量恒星的核心耗尽燃料并坍塌时，黑洞就会形成。
Considering the first stars were quite massive, they could have left behind black hole seeds of up to about 100 solar masses, Greene said.
格林说，考虑到第一批恒星的质量相当大，它们可能留下了大约 100 个太阳质量的黑洞种子。
“We know that happens, but it’s really, really hard to get them to a billion so quickly,” she said.
“我们知道这种情况会发生，但要这么快达到 10 亿真的非常非常困难，”她说。
“You really have to force-feed them.”
“你真的得给他们强行喂食。”
Scientists have historically believed there’s a hard limit to how fast black holes can grow.
科学家历来认为黑洞的生长速度存在严格限制。
As material falls toward the black hole, it gets hot as it spins around like water going down a drain.
当物质落向黑洞时，它会像水流入下水道一样旋转而变热。
The radiation that this “accretion disk” produces pushes back against more stuff flying in, preventing the black hole from consuming more.
这个“吸积盘”产生的辐射会阻止更多的物质飞入，从而防止黑洞消耗更多的物质。
This intake limit, called the Eddington limit, should make it impossible for black holes to grow tens of millions of times larger in the time available.
这个摄入量限制，称为爱丁顿极限，应该使黑洞不可能在可用时间内增大数千万倍。
But recent computer simulations suggest that black holes might have something of a back door.
但最近的计算机模拟表明黑洞可能有某种后门。
If the accretion disk puffs up in just the right way, the incoming gas can overwhelm the radiation pressure.
如果吸积盘以正确的方式膨胀，进入的气体可以压倒辐射压力。
Such “super-Eddington” accretion would lead to gas funneling in at extraordinary rates.
这种“超级爱丁顿”吸积将导致气体以惊人的速度流入。
Even so, astronomers don’t know if there would have been enough gas around to produce the biggest black holes.
即便如此，天文学家仍不知道周围是否有足够的气体来产生最大的黑洞。
Some researchers think that ancient, dense star clusters may have created lots of black hole seeds that rapidly merged.
一些研究人员认为，古老而致密的星团可能产生了许多快速合并的黑洞种子。
Or perhaps supermassive black holes never started as stars at all.
或者也许超大质量黑洞根本就不是恒星。
In this case, colossal clouds of gas would have plunged directly into a black hole.
在这种情况下，巨大的气体云会直接坠入黑洞。
This “direct collapse” mechanism can form a seed some 10,000 times the mass of the sun.
这种“直接塌陷”机制可以形成质量约为太阳一万倍的种子。
“The problem with the direct-collapse picture is that it requires really Goldilocks conditions,” Greene said.
“直接塌陷图片的问题在于它需要真正的金发姑娘条件，”格林说。
For direct collapse to work, a gargantuan cloud needs to compress into a black hole all at once, without first fracturing into smaller clouds that would form stars.
为了使直接塌缩发挥作用，巨大的云需要立即压缩成黑洞，而不是首先破裂成更小的云，从而形成恒星。
This requires specific gas chemistries, and the cloud must rotate slowly.
这需要特定的气体化学物质，并且云必须缓慢旋转。
“When people try to do this in a computer, they can make these direct-collapse black holes, but they can’t make enough of them to explain all the black holes that we see,” Greene said.
格林说：“当人们尝试在计算机中做到这一点时，他们可以制造出这些直接塌缩的黑洞，但他们无法制造出足够多的黑洞来解释我们所看到的所有黑洞。”
There’s some evidence to support each of these theories.
这些理论都有一些证据支持。
In 2024, JWST saw a black hole from about 1.5 billion years after the Big Bang gobbling up material at about 40 times the Eddington limit .
2024 年，JWST 发现了大爆炸后约 15 亿年的黑洞，其吞噬物质的速度约为爱丁顿极限的 40 倍。
If black holes earlier in cosmic time also stuffed themselves in this way, perhaps the biggest among them started as relatively small seeds.
如果宇宙早期的黑洞也以这种方式填充自己，那么其中最大的黑洞也许是从相对较小的种子开始的。
A simulation of a galaxy forming in the first 550 million years after the Big Bang.
模拟大爆炸后 5.5 亿年内形成的星系。
The panels from left to right represent dark matter, gas, and stars.
从左到右的面板代表暗物质、气体和恒星。
Zack Andalman/Princeton University
扎克·安达曼/普林斯顿大学
Recently, however, researchers took a long look at a little red dot from about 750 million years after the Big Bang that is gravitationally lensed by a cluster of galaxies in the foreground.
然而最近，研究人员长时间观察了大爆炸后约 7.5 亿年的一个小红点，它被前景中的星系团引力透镜化。
They concluded that the object is a “naked” supermassive black hole , an estimated 50 million times the mass of the sun, without any discernible stars surrounding it.
他们得出的结论是，该物体是一个“裸露”的超大质量黑洞，质量估计是太阳的 5000 万倍，周围没有任何可辨别的恒星。
If that mass estimate is correct, the implication is that the black hole may have formed as a large seed, possibly via direct collapse, before any galaxy was present.
如果质量估计是正确的，这意味着黑洞可能在任何星系出现之前就已经形成为一个大种子，可能是通过直接塌缩而形成的。
“There’s clearly differences in how the black holes are growing that we don’t fully understand yet,” Greene said.
格林说：“黑洞的生长方式存在明显差异，但我们尚未完全了解。”
“So for me, the most exciting thing to do right now is try to understand, physically, what’s different?”
“所以对我来说，现在最令人兴奋的事情就是尝试从身体上理解有什么不同？”
Like early black holes that seem too big, many early galaxies spotted by JWST seem too bright.
就像早期黑洞看起来太大一样，JWST 发现的许多早期星系看起来也太亮。
To figure out why, researchers are reassessing their ideas about how galaxies form.
为了找出原因，研究人员正在重新评估他们关于星系如何形成的想法。
Some 200 million years after the Big Bang, the infant universe was small, dense, and hot compared to today.
大爆炸后约 2 亿年，与今天相比，婴儿宇宙较小、密度较大且温度较高。
As it expanded and cooled, dark matter coalesced in great clumps that scientists call halos.
当暗物质膨胀和冷却时，它会凝聚成巨大的团块，科学家称之为光晕。
The gravity of these lightless halos pulled hydrogen and helium gas into vast filaments that gathered in the cores of the enveloping dark orbs.
这些无光光晕的重力将氢气和氦气拉成巨大的细丝，聚集在包围的黑暗球体的核心中。
Once enough gas had accumulated, extreme pressures sparked the fires of nuclear fusion and ignited the first stars, which were drawn together to make the first galaxies.
一旦积累了足够的气体，极端的压力就会引发核聚变之火，点燃第一批恒星，这些恒星被吸引在一起形成第一批星系。
Astronomers generally describe the timing of these events in terms of redshift, or how much the light from early objects has been stretched by cosmic expansion.
天文学家通常用红移来描述这些事件的时间，或者说来自早期天体的光被宇宙膨胀拉伸了多少。
“Not too much happens until about a redshift of 15 [270 million years after the Big Bang], and then lots of gas starts pouring in along these filaments,” said Rachel Somerville, a senior research scientist who studies galaxy formation at the Flatiron Institute in New York.
纽约熨斗研究所研究星系形成的高级研究科学家雷切尔·萨默维尔 (Rachel Somerville) 表示：“直到红移大约 15 年（大爆炸后 2.7 亿年）才会发生太多事情，然后大量气体开始沿着这些细丝涌入。”
She was presenting new computer simulations at a meeting in April 2026 in Helsingør, Denmark.
她在 2026 年 4 月于丹麦赫尔辛格举行的一次会议上展示了新的计算机模拟。
In a conference room overlooking a strait between the Baltic and North seas, more than 100 researchers from around the world had gathered to discuss the puzzles of the universe’s infancy.
在一间俯瞰波罗的海和北海之间海峡的会议室里，来自世界各地的 100 多名研究人员聚集在一起讨论宇宙诞生之谜。
Colorful visualizations of dark matter, gas, and starlight danced on a projector screen.
暗物质、气体和星光的彩色可视化在投影仪屏幕上舞动。
“By about a redshift of 11 [420 million years], the star formation rate starts to really pick up,” she continued.
“红移大约 11 亿年（4.2 亿年）时，恒星形成速度开始真正加快，”她继续说道。
“At redshift nine [550 million years], we make a nice galaxy.”
“在红移九度（5.5亿年），我们形成了一个漂亮的星系。”
Star clusters merge to form a galaxy around 500 million years after the Big Bang.
大爆炸后约 5 亿年，星团合并形成星系。
James Sunseri/Princeton University
詹姆斯·桑塞里/普林斯顿大学
The galaxy on the screen represented an early population, but the most ancient galaxy discovered by JWST so far existed only 280 million years after the Big Bang.
屏幕上的星系代表了早期的星系，但 JWST 迄今为止发现的最古老的星系仅存在于大爆炸后 2.8 亿年。
The telescope’s bewildering discovery of bright, early galaxies initially led some scientists to suggest that our understanding of fundamental cosmology, the laws that govern the behavior of energy and matter in the early universe, may be flawed.
该望远镜对明亮的早期星系的令人困惑的发现最初导致一些科学家认为我们对基本宇宙学的理解，即控制早期宇宙中能量和物质行为的定律，可能是有缺陷的。
But after a few years of studying these primitive objects, theorists now have several models to explain their brightness and abundance.
但经过几年对这些原始物体的研究，理论家现在有了几种模型来解释它们的亮度和丰度。
“We almost have gone from having too many early galaxies to having too many theories to explain them,” Somerville told the room.
“我们几乎已经从拥有太多的早期星系变成了拥有太多的理论来解释它们，”萨默维尔告诉房间里的人。
Perhaps the first galaxies converted gas to stars more efficiently than previously thought.
也许第一个星系将气体转化为恒星的效率比之前想象的要高。
Or they experienced periodic bursts of star formation driven by turbulent conditions.
或者它们经历了由湍流条件驱动的周期性恒星形成爆发。
Or maybe early star-forming regions preferentially created massive, extremely bright stars.
或者也许早期的恒星形成区域优先创造出巨大的、极其明亮的恒星。
Many astrophysicists think some combination of these factors, and perhaps others, contributed to the galaxies’ development.
许多天体物理学家认为，这些因素的某种组合，或许还有其他因素，促成了星系的发展。
We almost have gone from having too many early galaxies to having too many theories to explain them.
我们几乎已经从拥有太多的早期星系变成了拥有太多的理论来解释它们。
Rachel Somerville, Flatiron Institute
雷切尔·萨默维尔，熨斗研究所
To test these new ideas, researchers are exploring the infant universe through simulations.
为了测试这些新想法，研究人员正在通过模拟探索婴儿宇宙。
“There’s actually been really remarkable progress since Webb launched, really in the last year or so, on numerical simulations,” Somerville told attendees, adding that these new simulations “perhaps are more appropriate and more informative for interpreting observations in the high-redshift universe.”
萨默维尔告诉与会者：“自从韦伯推出以来，实际上是在去年左右，数值模拟方面确实取得了显着的进展。”他补充说，这些新的模拟“对于解释高红移宇宙中的观测结果可能更合适，信息也更丰富。”
As these models improve, JWST is documenting more and more galaxies.
随着这些模型的改进，JWST 正在记录越来越多的星系。
By comparing what it sees in the early universe to simulations that attempt to explain why, researchers are inching closer to uncovering the true nature of cosmic dawn.
通过将早期宇宙中所看到的现象与试图解释其原因的模拟进行比较，研究人员正在一步步揭开宇宙黎明的真实本质。
“We can try to match the best analogue of the observed galaxy to the simulated,” said Hakim Atek, an astrophysicist with the Paris Institute of Astrophysics at Sorbonne University.
索邦大学巴黎天体物理研究所的天体物理学家哈基姆·阿泰克（Hakim Atek）说：“我们可以尝试将观测到的星系与模拟星系的最佳模拟相匹配。”
“Once you have this best match, you can look at the star formation history, because in the simulations you have access to the whole history of the galaxy.”
“一旦你有了这个最佳匹配，你就可以查看恒星形成的历史，因为在模拟中你可以访问银河系的整个历史。”
An intriguing clue has recently emerged from JWST’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), a supercooled device that can split apart the light of distant objects.
最近，JWST 的中红外仪器（MIRI）中出现了一条有趣的线索，这是一种过冷设备，可以分解远处物体的光线。
MIRI has revealed that early galaxies do not have the same traits, as scientists assumed.
MIRI 揭示了早期星系并不像科学家假设的那样具有相同的特征。
“The main surprise is the diversity of the properties of galaxies we are seeing at early epochs,” Atek said.
“最令人惊讶的是我们在早期时期看到的星系特性的多样性，”阿泰克说。
“You’re expecting that they would look the same.”
“你期望它们看起来一样。”
This diversity may be an indication of star formation that occurred in bursts, as galaxies cycled through periods of fusing stars that exploded and expelled gas clouds, halting the creation of stars, only for the gas to gather again and trigger a new wave of stellar birth.
这种多样性可能表明恒星形成是爆发式的，因为星系会经历恒星融合时期，这些恒星会爆炸并排出气体云，从而停止恒星的形成，只有气体再次聚集并引发新一波恒星诞生。
“Some of them, it looks like they cleared all the interstellar medium that is present there, the gas and the dust.
“其中一些，看起来他们清除了那里存在的所有星际介质，气体和尘埃。
It’s like you’re looking only at naked stars,” Atek said.
就像你只看到裸露的星星一样，”阿泰克说。
“Another galaxy is the opposite.
“另一个星系则相反。
It has a lot of gas.”
它有很多气体。”
A further clue comes from a group of galaxies with an overabundance of nitrogen.
进一步的线索来自一组含有过量氮的星系。
The presence of the element suggests that there may have been a lot of particularly massive stars in the early universe.
这种元素的存在表明，早期宇宙中可能存在许多质量特别大的恒星。
In simulations, these massive stars generate an excess of nitrogen before exploding in supernovas and scattering the element across their host galaxies.
在模拟中，这些大质量恒星在超新星爆炸并将元素分散到其宿主星系中之前会产生过量的氮。
Someday, researchers may uncover the full picture of galactic formation.
有一天，研究人员可能会揭开星系形成的全貌。
Until then, they’ll continue sifting through the traces in new observations and simulations.
在那之前，他们将继续在新的观察和模拟中筛选痕迹。
Once the astral lights switched on, the universe transformed.
一旦星光亮起，宇宙就发生了变化。
Radiation from early galaxies and black holes ionized a sea of neutral hydrogen gas, carving out immense bubbles amid the cosmic haze.
来自早期星系和黑洞的辐射电离了中性氢气海洋，在宇宙雾霾中形成了巨大的气泡。
Researchers call this period reionization, as it was the second time the universe was ionized.
研究人员将这一时期称为再电离，因为这是宇宙第二次电离。
It marks the end of the cosmic dark age, when the foggy abyss was devoid of stars.
它标志着宇宙黑暗时代的结束，当时雾蒙蒙的深渊没有星星。
The first stars, thought to be hundreds or thousands of times more massive than the sun, furiously worked their way through their hydrogen and helium fuel and erupted in powerful supernovas, seeding the universe with new elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and iron — the stuff of planets and of life.
第一批恒星的质量被认为是太阳的数百或数千倍，它们通过氢和氦燃料猛烈地工作，并爆发出强大的超新星，为宇宙播下了碳、氮、氧、磷和铁等新元素——行星和生命的物质。
In many ways, those first stars are the mothers of the universe.
从很多方面来说，那些最初的恒星都是宇宙之母。
“We’re looking back at what created us,” said Lise Christensen, an astrophysicist with the Cosmic Dawn Center.
“我们正在回顾是什么创造了我们，”宇宙黎明中心的天体物理学家莉丝·克里斯滕森说。
Fitting, perhaps, that the recent conference to discuss cosmic origins took place in Helsingør, down the road from the castle that inspired Elsinore in Hamlet .
也许，最近讨论宇宙起源的会议在赫尔辛格举行，距离《哈姆雷特》中埃尔西诺的启发城堡不远，这也许很合适。
In the play, Shakespeare’s Danish prince laments:
剧中，莎士比亚笔下的丹麦王子感叹道：
this brave o’erhanging firmament, this majestical roof, fretted with golden fire — why, it appeareth nothing to me but a foul and pestilent congregation of vapors.
这勇敢的悬空苍穹，这雄伟的屋顶，上面布满了金色的火焰——为什么，在我看来，它只不过是一群肮脏而瘟疫的蒸气。
What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties .
一个人是多么了不起的杰作，他的理性是多么崇高，他的才能是多么无限。
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yet, to me, what is this quintessence of dust?
然而，对我来说，尘埃的本质是什么？
Though it’s a mournful rumination on existence — the universe as “a foul and pestilent congregation of vapors,” humanity as the “quintessence of dust” — we now understand that Hamlet’s description is more scientifically accurate than Shakespeare could have known.
尽管这是对存在的悲惨反思——宇宙是“肮脏而瘟疫的蒸气集合”，人类是“尘埃的精华”——但我们现在明白，哈姆雷特的描述比莎士比亚所知道的在科学上更加准确。
We are in fact made of elements forged in stars and ejected into the void as gas and dust.
事实上，我们是由恒星中锻造的元素组成，并以气体和尘埃的形式喷射到太空中。
Unlike Hamlet wallowing in Elsinore, however, scientists who study the origins of the universe are exhilarated by these cosmic beginnings.
然而，与沉迷于埃尔西诺的哈姆雷特不同，研究宇宙起源的科学家们对这些宇宙的起源感到兴奋。
Editor’s note: The Flatiron Institute is funded by the Simons Foundation, which also funds this editorially independent magazine .
编者注：熨斗研究所由西蒙斯基金会资助，该基金会也资助这本编辑独立的杂志。
Simons Foundation funding decisions have no influence on our coverage.
西蒙斯基金会的资助决定对我们的报道没有影响。
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