The Chełmno Death Camp
It was at Chełmno that the Nazis tested various methods of exterminating people en masse while they sought an alternative to the Einsatzgruppen’s mass shootings.
正是在海乌姆诺，纳粹测试了各种集体灭绝人口的方法，同时寻求替代特别行动队大规模枪击的方法。
Top Photo: A child who has been selected for deportation bids farewell to his family through the wire fence of the central prison during the "Gehsperre" action in the Łódź Ghetto, September 1942.
上图：1942 年 9 月，在罗兹隔都的“Gehsperre”行动中，一名被选中驱逐的儿童穿过中央监狱的铁丝网与家人告别。
Mendel Grosman.
孟德尔·格罗斯曼.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Moshe Zilbar
美国大屠杀纪念博物馆，由 Moshe Zilbar 提供
Among the Nazi concentration camp system , a few camps stood apart for their purposes of death and destruction.
在纳粹集中营系统中，有几个集中营是为了死亡和破坏而分开的。
At the three “Operation Reinhard” camps of Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór, the Nazis murdered nearly 1.7 million people between March 1942 and November 1943.
1942 年 3 月至 1943 年 11 月期间，纳粹分子在特雷布林卡、贝乌热茨和索比堡这三个“莱因哈德行动”集中营杀害了近 170 万人。
At the “hybrid” concentration–death camps of Auschwitz and Majdanek, the number of those killed combined also far exceeded 1 million.
在奥斯威辛和马伊达内克“混合”集中死亡营，被杀害的人数加起来也远远超过100万。
Yet, one camp within the Nazi system stood out for its lack of clear categorization: Chełmno.
然而，纳粹体系内的一个营地因其缺乏明确的分类而脱颖而出：Chełmno。
Often described as an “experimental” death camp, historian Konnilyn Feig called Chełmno “the pilot extermination project—rude and crude, conferring death by three gas vans, borrowed from the Eastern Front.” 1 Indeed, it was at Chełmno that the Nazis tested various methods of exterminating people en masse while they sought an alternative to the Einsatzgruppen’s mass shootings.
历史学家康尼林·费格经常被描述为“实验性”死亡集中营，历史学家康尼林·费格称海乌姆诺为“试验性灭绝项目——粗暴而粗鲁，利用从东线借用的三辆毒气车来实施死亡”。 1 事实上，正是在海乌姆诺，纳粹测试了各种集体灭绝人口的方法，同时寻求替代特别行动队大规模枪击的方法。
The result was one of the most horrific spaces to ever exist, a camp where at least 152,000 Jews and 4,300 Roma were murdered and only seven survived.
结果是有史以来最可怕的地方之一，这个营地中至少有 152,000 名犹太人和 4,300 名罗姆人被谋杀，只有 7 人幸存。
2 As a result, it is scarcely documented and even less well remembered.
2 因此，它几乎没有被记录下来，甚至更不为人所铭记。
3 But its role in the escalation of killing during the Holocaust remains irrefutable.
3 但它在大屠杀期间杀戮升级中所扮演的角色仍然是无可辩驳的。
The origins of Chełmno are best understood when paired with the timeline of World War II.
如果将海乌姆诺的起源与第二次世界大战的时间线结合起来，就可以更好地理解。
As Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, neared its apex on the outskirts of Moscow, the mass killing operation ordered on its heels in June 1941 faced its own issues.
当德国入侵苏联的巴巴罗萨行动在莫斯科郊区接近高潮时，1941 年 6 月下令实施的大规模屠杀行动也面临着自己的问题。
Although the Einsatzgruppen , which followed behind the Wehrmacht, had rounded up and executed over 1.5 million Jews, Nazi leadership—namely Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich—worried about the mental toll shooting so many innocent men, women, and children face-to-face, day-after-day would have on the perpetrators.
尽管跟随国防军的特别行动队已经围捕并处决了超过 150 万犹太人，但纳粹领导层——即海因里希·希姆莱和莱因哈德·海德里希——担心日复一日面对面枪杀如此多的无辜男女和儿童会给肇事者造成精神损失。
As historian Doris Bergen writes, “Mass shootings at closer range were labor intensive.
正如历史学家多丽丝·伯根（Doris Bergen）所写，“近距离的大规模枪击事件是劳动密集型的。
The procedure required a lot of weapons and ammunition, and each shooter could only kill one victim at a time.
整个过程需要大量武器和弹药，每个枪手一次只能杀死一名受害者。
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Many of the killers found the work physically and psychologically challenging, and they finished their shifts covered with blood.
许多杀手发现这项工作对身体和心理都有挑战性，他们在满身是血的情况下完成了工作。
Massive consumption of alcohol, rampant sexual assault, and a carnival atmosphere prevailed.” 4 Thus, at some point after Barbarossa began, high-ranking Nazi officials began seeking a “final solution” to the “Jewish problem,” as they coined these terms.
大量饮酒、性侵犯猖獗、狂欢气氛盛行。” 4 因此，在巴巴罗萨战争开始后的某个时刻，纳粹高级官员开始寻求“犹太人问题”的“最终解决方案”（他们创造了这些术语）。
Gassing people to death had already been employed by the Nazi Schutzstaffel (Protection Squad, or SS) during the so-called Aktion T4 “euthanasia” program in which the SS murdered hundreds of thousands of disabled people at special killing facilities throughout the Third Reich.
纳粹党卫队（保护小队，SS）在所谓的“Aktion T4”安乐死”计划中就已经采用了毒气致死的方法，在该计划中，党卫军在整个第三帝国的特殊屠杀设施中杀害了数十万残疾人。
There, the SS murdered victims using carbon monoxide gas in rooms disguised as showers.
在那里，党卫军在伪装成淋浴的房间里使用一氧化碳气体谋杀了受害者。
Hitler officially halted this program after public knowledge and protest in August 1941 (though it continued in secret).
1941 年 8 月，在公众知情和抗议后，希特勒正式停止了这一计划（尽管该计划仍在秘密进行）。
Yet, in the words of historian Patrick Montague, the “Chełmno death camp would be the first to adopt this model for the ‘assembly line’ extermination of Jews in the Wartheland.” 5 As an experiment in switching from killing Jews by mobile killing squads with bullets to killing them with gas in static locations, Chełmno was, to quote Feig, “not a camp in the true sense—the Germans had no intention of accommodating the prisoners for any length of time.” 6 Hence, the camp itself was rudimentary, consisting of an old manor house, granary, two wooden huts, and an open field.
然而，用历史学家帕特里克·蒙塔古的话来说，“海乌姆诺死亡营将是第一个采用这种模式在沃特兰‘流水线’灭绝犹太人的地方。” 5 引用费格的话说，海乌姆诺是一个实验，从使用子弹的机动杀戮队杀害犹太人转向使用毒气在固定地点杀害犹太人，“不是真正意义上的集中营——德国人无意在任何时间段内收容囚犯。” 6 因此，营地本身很简陋，只有一座古老的庄园、谷仓、两间木屋和一块空地。
When the SS fenced this space off, it covered no more than two hectares.
当党卫军将这个空间围起来时，它的面积不超过两公顷。
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Killing began on December 8, 1941, when local Jews (soon followed by Jews from the large ghetto in Łódź) were rounded up and sent by truck to the Chełmno facility.
屠杀始于 1941 年 12 月 8 日，当时当地犹太人（不久之后来自罗兹大型隔都的犹太人）被围捕并用卡车送往海乌姆诺设施。
There, an SS man told the new arrivals they were being sent eastward to work and that they needed to take baths and be disinfected.
在那里，一名党卫军人员告诉新来的人，他们将被派往东部工作，需要洗澡和消毒。
From there, they undressed inside one of the buildings before walking down a corridor leading to a large van waiting outside.
从那里，他们在其中一栋建筑物内脱掉衣服，然后沿着走廊走到外面等候的一辆大货车。
8 The vans had been specially modified, however, so that the engine exhaust filled the enclosed and now sealed-off cargo section of the van, where the victims sat.
8 然而，货车经过了特殊改造，发动机废气充满了货车封闭且现已密封的货物部分，受害者就坐在那里。
The Nazis used three gas vans, which they called Sonderwagen (special cars), each capable of holding between 80 and 100 people.
纳粹使用了三辆毒气车，他们称之为 Sonderwagen（特种车），每辆可容纳 80 至 100 人。
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Gassing Van used to liquidate Jews at the Kulmhof (Chelmno) extermination camp and near Konitz.
加辛范曾经在库姆霍夫（海乌姆诺）灭绝营和科尼茨附近消灭犹太人。
Archives of the Polish Ministry of Justice
波兰司法部档案馆
This was not the first time the Nazis had used converted vehicles to murder people.
这并不是纳粹第一次使用改装车辆杀人。
In January 1940, the SS utilized a gas van lined with metal sheets and a peephole to the cab to murder patients of mental homes in areas of occupied Poland, including Poznań and Kościan.
1940 年 1 月，党卫军利用一辆内衬金属板和驾驶室窥视孔的毒气车谋杀了波兹南和科希西安等波兰占领区精神病院的病人。
The killers forced patients into the back of a van or sealed trailer with an advertisement on the side for Kaiser’s Kaffe Geschäft (Kaiser’s Coffee Company).
凶手强迫病人进入一辆货车或密封拖车的后部，侧面贴有凯撒咖啡公司（Kaiser’s Kaffe Geschäft）的广告。
As the van drove from the mental hospital to nearby forests, carbon monoxide canisters or an altered exhaust pipe released gas into the sealed cabin, asphyxiating all those inside.
当货车从精神病院驶向附近森林时，一氧化碳罐或改装的排气管将气体释放到密封的舱内，导致舱内所有人窒息。
The bodies were then removed once the van reached its destination in the woods.
货车到达树林中的目的地后，尸体被移走。
The numbers of those killed in this manner is unclear, though at Kościan alone, scholars estimate the number at over 3,000.
以这种方式被杀的人数尚不清楚，但仅在科希西安，学者们估计人数就超过 3,000 人。
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At Chełmno, the first van probably used bottled carbon monoxide and was likely the same Kaiser’s Kaffe van.
在海乌姆诺，第一辆货车可能使用瓶装一氧化碳，并且很可能是同一辆 Kaiser's Kaffe 货车。
However, by early 1942, new vans arrived with the reconfigured exhaust pipes.
然而，到 1942 年初，带有重新配置的排气管的新型货车抵达。
The sealed cargo compartments were specially ordered from a firm in Berlin called Gaubschat, and the conversion process was as simple as boring a hole in the compartment and manufacturing a removable exhaust hose that could be fitted on top of the exhaust itself to channel deadly carbon monoxide into the cargo bay where people were sealed inside.
密封的货舱是专门从柏林一家名为 Gaubschat 的公司订购的，改装过程非常简单，只需在舱内钻一个孔并制造一个可拆卸的排气软管，该软管可以安装在排气装置本身的顶部，将致命的一氧化碳引导到货舱中，人们被密封在货舱内。
Records also show that the men who altered the vans installed another pipe that prevented those locked inside from interfering with the apparatus.
记录还显示，改造货车的人安装了另一根管道，以防止锁在里面的人干扰设备。
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Szlamek Bajler (also known as Jacob Grojanowski) was a Polish Jew who escaped from working as a gravedigger in the forests of Chełmno and made it to the Warsaw Ghetto.
斯拉梅克·巴伊勒（Szlamek Bajler，又名雅各布·格罗贾诺夫斯基）是一名波兰犹太人，他从海乌姆诺森林中的掘墓人工作中逃脱，来到了华沙犹太人区。
Bajler recorded what he witnessed in a document buried in the Oyneg Shabes Archive , where he described the van: “It looked like a normal large lorry, in grey paint, with two hermetically closed rear doors.
巴伊勒在埋藏于奥内格·沙贝斯档案馆的一份文件中记录了他所目睹的一切，他在文件中描述了这辆货车：“它看起来像一辆普通的大型卡车，涂着灰色油漆，有两扇密封的后门。
The inner walls were of steel metal.
内壁由钢金属制成。
There weren’t any seats.
没有座位。
The floor was covered by a wooden grating, as in public baths, with straw mats on top …
地板上铺着木格栅，就像公共浴室一样，上面铺着草垫……
the gas generator was in the cab, where the same driver sat all the time.” 12
气体发生器在驾驶室里，同一位司机一直坐在驾驶室里。” 12
Children from the Marysin colony who were rounded-up during the "Gehsperre" action in the Lodz ghetto, march in a long column towards a deportation assembly point.
在罗兹隔都的“Gehsperre”行动中被围捕的马里辛殖民地的孩子们排着长队走向驱逐集合点。
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Instytut Pamieci Narodowej
美国大屠杀纪念馆，由 Instytut Pamieci Narodowej 提供
Though the SS believed the entire killing procedure would last 15 minutes, in reality, according to Montague, “the gassing procedure practiced in Chełmno was more horrific, if such is possible, than one might imagine.
尽管党卫军相信整个杀戮过程将持续 15 分钟，但实际上，根据蒙塔古的说法，“在海乌姆诺实施的毒气杀害过程比人们想象的更可怕，如果可能的话。
Death did not come quickly.
死亡来得并不快。
The victims were loaded into the van, the doors locked, and the engine started.
受害者被装进货车，车门锁上，发动机启动。
After some minutes, as the screaming and knocking on the sides of the van diminished, the victims were driven off to the pits in the forest for burial.” 13 Local Poles living near the camp confirmed this killing procedure, including one who saw a broken-down gas van on the side of the road as he rode his bike.
几分钟后，随着货车两侧的尖叫声和敲击声减弱，受害者被运到森林里的坑里埋葬。”居住在营地附近的 13 名当地波兰人证实了这一杀戮过程，其中一名骑自行车时看到路边停着一辆抛锚的煤气车。
“As he passed by, he heard screams coming from inside.
“当他经过时，他听到里面传来尖叫声。
The van was started.
货车启动了。
Up and drove past him only to stop once more.
起身驶过他身旁，又停下来。
As he pedaled by the van a second time, he again heard screams.” 14
当他第二次踩着货车经过时，他再次听到尖叫声。” 14
In fact, to better conceal their activities, the SS later adjusted the killing process so the vans idled near the manor house in the camp itself to ensure most had died before the van left on its journey to the mass grave beyond the camp’s fences.
事实上，为了更好地隐藏他们的活动，党卫军后来调整了杀戮流程，让货车在营地内的庄园附近闲置，以确保大多数人在货车离开营地围栏前往万人坑之前死亡。
A local Pole named Józef Budynek actually noticed a gas van that had stopped on the side of the road during this later process, and he witnessed two bodies fall out and be thrown back inside before the door was shut again.
当地一位名叫约瑟夫·布迪内克 (Józef Budynek) 的波兰人实际上注意到一辆煤气车在随后的过程中停在路边，他亲眼目睹了两具尸体掉下来并在门再次关上之前被扔回车内。
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By mid-1942, the bodies buried in the forest grave near Chełmno had saturated the nearby area with a horrible odor.
到 1942 年中期，埋在海乌姆诺附近森林坟墓中的尸体已经使附近地区充满了可怕的气味。
To address this, the SS brought in ovens and ordered Jewish prisoners to unearth and burn the bodies.
为了解决这个问题，党卫军引进了烤箱，命令犹太囚犯挖掘并焚烧尸体。
16 The Germans did the same at other death camps, especially at Treblinka, where they initially buried bodies before the smell became so noticeable to nearby Poles that the SS also switched to burning.
16 德国人在其他死亡集中营也做了同样的事情，特别是在特雷布林卡，他们最初在那里掩埋尸体，后来附近的波兰人闻到了这种气味，以至于党卫军也转而焚烧。
17 In fact, maintaining a small squadron of Jewish prisoners, often called Sonderkommando , became a fixture at Treblinka and the other two Reinhard camps.
17 事实上，在特雷布林卡和其他两个莱因哈德集中营，维持一个由犹太囚犯组成的小中队（通常称为特遣队）已成为一种固定方式。
The Sonderkommandos ’ only right to exist at these camps was to perform the brutal tasks associated with mass murder, and their work in the final days of their lives was as horrifying as it was heartbreaking.
特遣队在这些营地中存在的唯一权利就是执行与大规模谋杀相关的残酷任务，他们在生命最后几天的工作既令人恐惧又令人心碎。
Bajler, for instance, wrote, “I remained lonely as a piece of stone.
例如，巴伊勒写道：“我仍然像一块石头一样孤独。
Out of my entire family, which comprised sixty people, I am the only one who survived.” 18 Bajler later escaped by jumping out of a window of a bus on the way to the forest one morning, sparing his own life for a few months before he was later murdered at Bełżec.
我全家有六十口人，我是唯一活下来的人。” 18 一天早上，巴伊勒在前往森林的途中从一辆公共汽车的车窗跳下逃脱，保全了自己的生命几个月，后来在贝乌热茨被谋杀。
Jews board a passenger train during a deportation action in the Lodz ghetto.
犹太人在罗兹隔都的驱逐行动中登上客运列车。
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Robert Abrams
美国大屠杀纪念博物馆，由罗伯特·艾布拉姆斯提供
Yet, other facets of Chełmno did not appear at the Reinhard camps that followed.
然而，海乌姆诺的其他方面并没有出现在随后的莱因哈德营地中。
Following the Wannsee Conference on January 20, 1942, the SS built three death camps with larger, nonmobile gas chambers at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka.
1942 年 1 月 20 日万湖会议之后，党卫军在贝乌热茨、索比堡和特雷布林卡建立了三个死亡营，配有更大的不可移动毒气室。
The switch away from mobile killing in vans was likely a result of simple logistical problems that arose at Chełmno, including the breakdown of the vans, the maintenance required on the vehicles (which alerted local Poles to the vans’ functionality in some cases), and the limited capacity of the sealed compartment compared to the bigger gas chambers that could be built at a death camp.
不再使用货车进行机动杀戮可能是海乌姆诺发生的简单后勤问题的结果，包括货车故障、车辆所需的维护（这在某些情况下提醒当地波兰人注意货车的功能），以及与死亡营可以建造的更大毒气室相比，密封隔间的容量有限。
Therefore, partly because the Reinhard camps became operational while the killing of targeted groups at Chełmno was slowing down, and partly because their killing capacities (and later that of Auschwitz) could handle all the Third Reich’s future “murder needs,” the SS decided to end the killing at Chełmno in September 1942.
因此，部分是因为莱因哈德集中营开始运作，而海乌姆诺针对目标群体的屠杀速度正在放缓，部分是因为它们的杀戮能力（以及后来的奥斯维辛集中营）可以满足第三帝国未来的所有“谋杀需求”，党卫军决定于 1942 年 9 月结束海乌姆诺的杀戮。
In their eyes, they had accomplished the mission of the camp, which, as spelled out by SS officer Rolf-Heinz Höppner, was “to finish off those of the Jews who are not employable by means of some quick-working device.” In other words, these “useless eaters” needed to be exterminated in a way “that would be more pleasant than to let them starve to death.” 19
在他们眼中，他们已经完成了集中营的使命，正如党卫军军官罗尔夫·海因茨·霍普纳所说，“通过某种快速工作装置消灭那些无法就业的犹太人”。换句话说，这些“无用的食者”需要以一种“比让他们饿死更令人愉快的方式”来消灭。 19
Aside from being an experimental death camp that used death vans as the primary means to murder Jews, Chełmno also was unique in that it was “reactivated” for a few months in the middle of 1944 to murder nearly 25,000 Jews who were left in the Łódź Ghetto.
海乌姆诺除了是一个使用死亡车作为谋杀犹太人的主要手段的实验性死亡集中营之外，它的独特之处还在于它在 1944 年中期的几个月内“重新启动”，谋杀了留在罗兹隔都的近 25,000 名犹太人。
A group of Jewish prisoners were then tasked with further clearing the site, though the group of 48 men revolted on January 17, 1945, the date on which they were supposed to be shot, and several escaped this fate.
随后，一群犹太囚犯奉命进一步清理现场，尽管这群 48 名男子于 1945 年 1 月 17 日（他们本应被枪决的日期）起义，其中一些人逃脱了这一命运。
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In 1962, 12 former SS men, including a driver of one of the vans, were brought to trial in Germany.
1962 年，12 名前党卫军成员，其中包括一辆货车的司机，在德国受审。
Three were acquitted, three were given light sentences (of 13 months and two weeks), and six receive sentences from between 3-and-a-half years to 15 years in prison for their complicity in mass murder.
其中 3 人被无罪释放，3 人被判处轻刑（13 个月零两周），6 人因参与大规模谋杀而被判处 3 年半至 15 年监禁。
The number of others who facilitated the killing spree at Chełmno but escaped justice is likely far larger.
促成海乌姆诺大屠杀但逃脱法律制裁的其他人的数量可能要大得多。
In 1964, the Polish government erected a monument on the site and in 1990 a museum was also added.
1964年，波兰政府在此处竖立了一座纪念碑，并于1990年又增建了一座博物馆。
21 The site is visited by tourists, scholars, and students regularly today.
21 如今，游客、学者和学生经常参观该遗址。
Chełmno memorial.
海乌姆诺纪念馆。
Lestat (Jan Mehlich) , CC BY-SA 3.0 , via Wikimedia Commons
Lestat（Jan Mehlich），CC BY-SA 3.0，来自维基共享资源
However, Chełmno remains somewhat of an enigma.
然而，海乌姆诺仍然是一个谜。
Given the horrific method of mass murder there, the large number of Jews killed, and the relatively few survivors, the camp has become synonymous with Nazi brutality.
鉴于那里大规模屠杀的可怕方式、大量犹太人被杀、幸存者相对较少，该集中营已成为纳粹暴行的代名词。
More than that, however, the camp’s role as an experimental death camp at the exact moment when the Nazis were looking for a more “efficient” killing method in switching away from mass shooting, make it crucial in understanding the development of the sequence of “final solutions” that made up the Holocaust.
然而，更重要的是，在纳粹寻求一种更“有效”的杀戮方法以摆脱大规模枪击的同时，该集中营充当了实验死亡营的角色，这使得它对于理解构成大屠杀的“最终解决方案”序列的发展至关重要。
From a purely functionalist perspective, therefore, Chełmno serves as the bridge between the “Holocaust by bullets” and the gas chambers at places like Bełżec, Sobibór, Treblinka, and even Auschwitz.
因此，从纯粹功能主义的角度来看，海乌姆诺充当了“子弹大屠杀”与贝乌热茨、索比堡、特雷布林卡甚至奥斯威辛等地毒气室之间的桥梁。
Those who experienced the hell of Chełmno, however, leave us the darker legacy of the camp as it truly was.
然而，那些经历过海乌姆诺地狱的人却给我们留下了集中营的黑暗遗产。
In a written account that was later buried in a milk can under the Warsaw Ghetto, Bajler wrote of encountering a rabbi soon after escaping Chełmno.
巴伊勒在一份后来被埋在华沙隔都地下牛奶罐中的书面记录中写道，他在逃离海乌姆诺后不久就遇到了一位拉比。
His words are eternally haunting: “He looked at me as if I was mad.
他的话永远令人难以忘怀：“他看着我，好像我疯了一样。
I told him: ‘Rabbi, don’t think I am crazed and have lost my reason.
我告诉他：‘拉比，别以为我疯了，失去了理智。
I am a Jew from the nether world.
我是来自阴间的犹太人。
They are killing the whole nation, Israel.
他们正在杀害整个国家，以色列。
I myself have buried a whole town of Jews, my parents, brothers and the entire family.” 22
我本人埋葬了整个城镇的犹太人，包括我的父母、兄弟和整个家庭。” 22
Konnilyn G.
康尼林·G.
Feig, Hitler’s Death Camps: The Sanity of Madness (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1981), 30.
费格，《希特勒的死亡营：疯狂的理智》（纽约：Holmes & Meier Publishers，1981），30。
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Chełmno,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, accessed June 27, 2025, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/Chełmno .
美国大屠杀纪念博物馆，“Chełmno”，大屠杀百科全书，2025 年 6 月 27 日访问，https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/Chełmno。
Patrick Montague, Chełmno and the Holocaust: The History of Hitler’s First Death Camp (London: Bloomsbury, 2020), 2.
帕特里克·蒙塔古，《海乌姆诺与大屠杀：希特勒第一个死亡营的历史》（伦敦：布卢姆斯伯里，2020 年），2。
Doris L.
多丽丝·L.
Bergen, War & Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust, 4th ed, (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2025), 274.
卑尔根，《战争与种族灭绝：大屠杀简史》，第 4 版，（Lanham：Rowman & Littlefield，2025 年），274。
Artur Hojan and Chris Webb, “Koscian – Euthanasia in the Warthegau,” Holocaust Historical Society, 2013, https://www.holocausthistoricalsociety.org.uk/contents/euthanasia/koscian.html .
Artur Hojan 和 Chris Webb，“Koscian – Warthegau 的安乐死”，大屠杀历史学会，2013 年，https://www.holocausthistoricalsociety.org.uk/contents/euthanasia/koscian.html。
“Escapee from Chełmno Documents Atrocities,” Jewish Virtual Library, accessed June 27, 2025, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/escapee-from-Chełmno-documents-atrocities.
“逃离海乌姆诺文件暴行的逃亡者”，犹太虚拟图书馆，2025 年 6 月 27 日访问，https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/escapee-from-Chełmno-documents-atrocities。
Jacob Flaws, Spaces of Treblinka: Retracing a Death Camp (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2024).
雅各布·福尔斯，《特雷布林卡的空间：回顾死亡营》（林肯：内布拉斯加大学出版社，2024 年）。
“Chełmno Concentration Camp: History & Overview,” Jewish Virtual Library, accessed June 27, 2025, https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-Chełmno .
“海乌姆诺集中营：历史与概述”，犹太虚拟图书馆，2025 年 6 月 27 日访问，https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-Chełmno。
Jacob Flaws, PhD, is an assistant professor of history at Kean University and a Nonresident Fellow at the National World War II Museum.
雅各布·弗劳斯博士是基恩大学历史系助理教授，也是国家二战博物馆的非常驻研究员。
Joseph R.
约瑟夫·R。
Beyrle's experience captures the initiative demanded of airborne soldiers, the brutality endured by prisoners of war, and the unlikely battlefield cooperation between American and Soviet soldiers during the final months of the war.
拜尔的经历体现了空降兵所需要的主动性、战俘所遭受的残酷以及战争最后几个月美国和苏联士兵之间不太可能的战场合作。
When Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Boris Vetman and his older brother Samuel volunteered to fight to defend their homeland with the Red Army.
当纳粹德国入侵苏联时，鲍里斯·维特曼和他的哥哥塞缪尔自愿加入红军保卫家园。
American soldiers liberated the concentration camp at Buchenwald on April 11, 1945, and were profoundly shaken by what they discovered.
1945 年 4 月 11 日，美国士兵解放了布痕瓦尔德 (Buchenwald) 集中营，他们的发现深深震撼了他们。
On January 27, 1945, the courage of Master Sergeant Roderick W.
1945 年 1 月 27 日，军士长 Roderick W.
“Roddie” Edmonds to speak up for his fellow POWs shielded them from certain persecution and potential death.
“罗迪”埃德蒙兹为他的战俘同伴发声，保护他们免受某些迫害和潜在的死亡。
On January 27, 1945, the Red Army entered the gates of Auschwitz in horrified awe of what they encountered.
1945 年 1 月 27 日，红军带着对所遭遇的一切的惊恐和敬畏走进了奥斯维辛集中营的大门。
As they marched through the snow, they encountered stacks of frozen corpses and 7,000 frightened, exhausted prisoners in the barracks.
当他们在雪地里行进时，他们在营房里遇到了成堆的冰冻尸体和7000名惊恐、疲惫的囚犯。
This month, in accordance with International Holocaust Remembrance Day, we seek to help learners consider how to approach teaching and learning about the Holocaust.
本月，根据国际大屠杀纪念日，我们力求帮助学习者考虑如何进行有关大屠杀的教学和学习。
Eva Schloss dedicated her life to Holocaust education and sharing her experiences with audiences around the world.
伊娃·施洛斯 (Eva Schloss) 一生致力于大屠杀教育，并与世界各地的观众分享她的经历。
A main goal of the 588th Night Bomber Regiment was to attack German morale and keep enemy soldiers sleep-deprived from nights of almost endless bombing raids.
第 588 夜间轰炸机团的主要目标是打击德军士气，让敌方士兵在夜间几乎无休无止的轰炸袭击中失眠。
945 Magazine Street, New Orleans, LA 70130 info@nationalww2museum.org 504-528-1944
945 Magazine Street, 新奥尔良, LA 70130 info@nationalww2museum.org 504-528-1944