The Blitz of 1940
While the RAF fought in the skies overhead, British civilians in towns of southern England endured regular visits from German bombers in what came to be known as “the Blitz."
当英国皇家空军在头顶上空作战时，英格兰南部城镇的英国平民经常遭受德国轰炸机的袭击，这就是所谓的“闪电战”。
Top Photo: Firemen at work in bomb damaged street in London, after Saturday night raid, circa 1941.
上图：1941 年左右，星期六夜间袭击后，消防员在伦敦被炸弹破坏的街道上工作。
New York Times Paris Bureau Collection.
纽约时报巴黎分社收藏。
National Archives
国家档案馆
After the fall of France in June 1940, Great Britain stood alone in Europe against Nazi Germany’s offensives.
1940 年 6 月法国沦陷后，英国在欧洲独自抵抗纳粹德国的进攻。
Shortly thereafter, in what became known as the “Battle of Britain,” the skies over southern England were filled with large formations of aircraft, swirling contrails, and damaged planes trailing smoke spiraling to the ground.
此后不久，在后来的“不列颠之战”中，英格兰南部的天空布满了大队的飞机、旋转的尾迹和受损的飞机，尾随烟雾盘旋坠落到地面。
From summer 1940 until the following spring, the Royal Air Force’s (RAF) Fighter Command successfully countered the German air offensive using the world’s first complex integrated air defense system.
从 1940 年夏天到次年春天，英国皇家空军 (RAF) 战斗机司令部使用世界上第一个复杂的综合防空系统成功反击了德国的空中进攻。
While the RAF fought in the skies overhead, British civilians in towns of southern England endured regular visits from German Heinkel, Junkers, and Dornier bombers.
当英国皇家空军在上空作战时，英格兰南部城镇的英国平民却经常遭受德国亨克尔、容克斯和多尼尔轰炸机的袭击。
In what came to be known as “the Blitz,” British civilians endured the Luftwaffe’s attacks on infrastructure, production centers, military targets, and national morale.
在后来被称为“闪电战”的事件中，英国平民忍受了德国空军对基础设施、生产中心、军事目标和国家士气的攻击。
Often told as part of WWII lore as a tale of dogged resistance, British subjects’ actions during the Blitz were surprisingly pragmatic and practical.
英国臣民在闪电战期间的行动经常被作为二战传说中顽强抵抗的故事的一部分来讲述，但他们的行动却出奇的务实和实用。
After World War I, military aviation proponents and prophets envisioned future wars as air-centric affairs, with fleets of bomber aircraft menacing an enemy nation.
第一次世界大战后，军用航空支持者和预言家将未来的战争设想为以空中为中心的事务，轰炸机机队威胁敌国。
No longer would war be limited to those in uniform.
战争不再仅限于那些穿着制服的人。
With aviation technology growing by leaps and bounds during the 1920s and ’30s, new aircraft could carry more bombs across greater distances.
随着 20 世纪 20 年代和 30 年代航空技术的突飞猛进，新型飞机可以携带更多炸弹飞更远的距离。
These new warplanes threatened not only military personnel at, and behind the front lines, but now an entire nation’s civilian population was at risk.
这些新型战机不仅威胁着前线和后方的军事人员，而且现在整个国家的平民都处于危险之中。
Strategically attacking a nation’s industrial capabilities, infrastructure, and military bases far behind normal battle lines became a sound and feasible strategy.
从战略上攻击一个国家远离正常战线的工业能力、基础设施和军事基地成为一个合理可行的战略。
In addition to causing physical damage, hitting cities and denying civilians the necessities of life also targeted an enemy nation’s morale.
除了造成物质损失外，袭击城市和剥夺平民的生活必需品也会打击敌国的士气。
Toward this end, breaking their spirit was now a key objective of an aerial offensive.
为此，摧毁他们的精神现在成为空中进攻的一个关键目标。
Such ideas were first codified by an Italian artillery officer named Guilio Douhet.
这些想法首先由一位名叫 Guilio Douhet 的意大利炮兵军官编纂而成。
In his influential 1921 book Command of the Air , he called for air forces to deliberately target civilian populations.
在 1921 年颇具影响力的著作《空中指挥》中，他呼吁空军故意针对平民人口。
Specifically, he wrote, “An aerial fleet capable of dumping hundreds of tons of bombs can be easily organized; therefore, the striking force and magnitude of the aerial offensive …
具体来说，他写道：“可以轻松组织能够投掷数百吨炸弹的空中舰队；因此，空中攻势的打击力和规模……
are far more effective that those of any other offensive yet known.”
比任何其他已知的进攻手段都要有效得多。”
A German Luftwaffe Heinkel He 111 bomber flying over Wapping, London at the start of the Luftwaffe's evening raids of September 7, 1940.
1940 年 9 月 7 日晚间空袭开始时，一架德国空军 Heinkel He 111 轰炸机飞越伦敦沃平上空。
Australian War Memorial
澳大利亚战争纪念馆
In addition to striking military targets, Douhet advocated the targeting of civilians with incendiary, gas, and high-explosive bombs designed specifically to inflict a maximum number of casualties.
除了打击军事目标外，杜黑还主张使用专门设计的燃烧弹、毒气弹和高爆炸弹来瞄准平民，以造成最大程度的伤亡。
For him, such widespread destruction would terrorize enemy populations and destroy national morale.
对他来说，如此广泛的破坏会恐吓敌方民众并摧毁国家士气。
Given such violence, Douhet expected civilian populations to capitulate quickly, forcing their governments to seek peace terms.
鉴于此类暴力事件，杜黑预计平民会迅速投降，迫使其政府寻求和平条件。
Variations of his same thinking emerged from other airpower advocates, but such ideas were still only theories that “briefed well” and had not been fully tested.
其他空中力量倡导者也提出了与他相同的想法的不同版本，但这些想法仍然只是“简单介绍”的理论，尚未经过充分检验。
By the time World War II began, bombing attacks on civilian population centers had occurred in Spain, China, and Ethiopia.
第二次世界大战开始时，西班牙、中国和埃塞俄比亚都发生过针对平民中心的爆炸袭击事件。
Such attacks created horrific scenes of carnage and even influenced Pablo Picasso’s classic 1937 painting Guernica .
此类袭击造成了可怕的屠杀场景，甚至影响了巴勃罗·毕加索 1937 年的经典画作《格尔尼卡》。
However, bombing civilians in these interwar conflicts yielded little military gain, achieving similar, yet ambiguous strategic results.
然而，在这些两次世界大战之间的冲突中轰炸平民几乎没有产生任何军事收益，取得了类似但模糊的战略结果。
However, after quick German victories in Poland and France, the Luftwaffe was flush with success and full of confidence.
然而，德国在波兰和法国取得快速胜利后，德国空军欣喜若狂，信心十足。
In preparation for a ground invasion of the British Isles, the Luftwaffe sought to destroy the RAF and set the conditions for the German “Sea Lion” amphibious assault.
为了准备对不列颠群岛进行地面入侵，德国空军试图摧毁英国皇家空军，并为德国“海狮”两栖攻击创造条件。
The Battle of Britain began in July 1940 with the Luftwaffe deliberately targeting RAF fighter bases and aircraft production facilities.
不列颠之战于 1940 年 7 月开始，德国空军故意瞄准英国皇家空军战斗机基地和飞机生产设施。
Throughout these first weeks, Fighter Command met the German attacks while struggling to maintain an effective aerial defense.
在最初的几周里，战斗机司令部一边应对德军的攻击，一边努力维持有效的空中防御。
RAF Spitfire and Hurricane pilots attacked German fighter and bomber formations, putting up a dogged defense that slowly took a toll on both sides.
英国皇家空军的喷火式战斗机和飓风式战斗机飞行员袭击了德国战斗机和轰炸机编队，顽强的防御，慢慢地对双方造成了损失。
However, RAF Fighter Command would soon receive a welcome respite.
然而，英国皇家空军战斗机司令部很快就得到了可喜的喘息机会。
While the Germans avoided bombing London and focused on the RAF’s destruction, on the night of August 24, Heinkel bombers hit the Thameshaven Oil Terminal near the British capital’s East End.
当德国人避免轰炸伦敦并集中精力摧毁英国皇家空军时，8 月 24 日晚，亨克尔轰炸机袭击了英国首都东区附近的泰晤士哈文石油码头。
In retaliation, the next night RAF Bomber Command struck Tempelhof Airfield in Berlin and the nearby Siemens factory works.
作为报复，第二天晚上英国皇家空军轰炸机司令部袭击了柏林的滕珀尔霍夫机场和附近的西门子工厂。
Four days later, British bombers struck Berlin again, hitting the Gorlitzer Railway Station.
四天后，英国轰炸机再次袭击柏林，击中了戈尔利策火车站。
An incensed Hitler saw the attacks as an overt political action upon the German capital that required immediate retribution.
愤怒的希特勒认为这些袭击是针对德国首都的公开政治行动，需要立即进行报复。
Days later, on September 7, Luftwaffe leadership ordered retaliatory strikes on London.
几天后，即 9 月 7 日，德国空军领导层下令对伦敦进行报复性袭击。
While RAF Fighter Command was feeling the strain of the early Luftwaffe offensive, this change in German targeting was an important strategic blunder.
虽然英国皇家空军战斗机司令部感受到了早期德国空军攻势的压力，但德国目标的这一变化是一个重要的战略错误。
No longer the Luftwaffe’s focus, the RAF had time to rebuild, rearm, and reconstitute Fighter Command while the German air force focused on civilian targets.
英国皇家空军不再是德国空军的重点，而是有时间重建、重新武装和重组战斗机司令部，而德国空军则专注于民用目标。
By mid-September, the Germans changed bombing methodologies wholesale with cities and other urban centers.
到九月中旬，德国人大规模改变了对城市和其他城市中心的轰炸方法。
With this adjustment, British civilians now bore the brunt of the Luftwaffe’s bombs.
经过这一调整，英国平民现在首当其冲地受到德国空军炸弹的攻击。
During the Blitz, British civilians endured both day and night attacks that reflected prewar airpower theories.
在闪电战期间，英国平民遭受了白天和夜间的袭击，这反映了战前的空中力量理论。
With German planes targeting British infrastructure, production centers, national will, and urban populations, nearly 7,000 British civilians were killed and over 10,000 wounded in September 1940 alone.
德国飞机以英国基础设施、生产中心、国家意志和城市人口为目标，仅 1940 年 9 月就有近 7,000 名英国平民丧生，10,000 多人受伤。
The cities of London, Merseyside, Birmingham, Plymouth, Bristol, Coventry, Manchester, and Portsmouth suffered the most, but fortunately, none of these attacks included chemical or gas weapons.
伦敦、默西塞德、伯明翰、普利茅斯、布里斯托尔、考文垂、曼彻斯特和朴茨茅斯等城市遭受的损失最严重，但幸运的是，这些袭击均不涉及化学或毒气武器。
Many civilians fled urban areas for the countryside to avoid the German attacks; it was reported that finding a hotel room anywhere within 70 miles outside of London was impossible.
许多平民逃离城市地区前往乡村以避免德国的袭击；据报道，在伦敦以外 70 英里范围内找到酒店房间是不可能的。
Similarly, raids on Plymouth and Southampton forced thousands to initially leave their homes and live in tents or encampments located on the city outskirts.
同样，对普利茅斯和南安普敦的袭击迫使数千人最初离开家园，住在位于城市郊区的帐篷或营地中。
The targeting of British towns and industry certainly had a physical effect, but part of the German offensive plan was to destroy British will and the nation’s ability to resist.
以英国城镇和工业为目标当然会产生物理影响，但德国进攻计划的一部分是摧毁英国的意志和国家的抵抗能力。
While towns such as Coventry experienced a drop in public morale, the Douhetian objective of bombing civilian populations to compel a surrender never fully materialized.
尽管考文垂等城镇的公众士气有所下降，但都河田轰炸平民以迫使投降的目标从未完全实现。
Despite the Luftwaffe’s best efforts, the British public did not call for an end to the war.
尽管德国空军尽了最大努力，英国公众并没有呼吁结束战争。
Instead, public sentiment went in the opposite direction.
相反，公众情绪却走向了相反的方向。
Although the Luftwaffe reported “signs of great [British] weariness” and that “optimism had disappeared,” by and large the British people continued their daily routines, and support for continuing the war remained strong.
尽管德国空军报告称“[英国]出现了极大的疲倦迹象”并且“乐观情绪已经消失”，但总的来说，英国人民仍在继续他们的日常生活，对继续战争的支持仍然很强烈。
Initial Luftwaffe attacks on London targeted the city’s East End, an area that housed docks and accompanying warehouses.
德国空军最初对伦敦的袭击目标是该市的东区，该地区设有码头和附属仓库。
Hoping to disrupt the British economy and weaken national resolve, this industrial part of the city received as many as 25,000 bombs.
为了扰乱英国经济并削弱国家决心，该市的这个工业区遭到了多达 25,000 枚炸弹的袭击。
However, bombing the East End had unintended consequences.
然而，轰炸东区却产生了意想不到的后果。
Generally, poorer, working-class Londoners inhabited the East End and bore the brunt of these early attacks.
一般来说，居住在东区的较贫穷的伦敦工人阶级在这些早期袭击中首当其冲。
Meanwhile, the upscale, more affluent West End parts of the city remained unscathed, causing resentment from their East End counterparts.
与此同时，该市高档、更富裕的西区地区却毫发无伤，引起了东区同行的不满。
However, that cleavage was quickly repaired on September 13 when Buckingham Palace and parts of the West End were targeted.
然而，9 月 13 日，当白金汉宫和伦敦西区部分地区成为攻击目标时，这种裂痕很快就得到了修复。
One bomb destroyed the Palace’s chapel, illustrating the danger posed to all elements of the city.
一枚炸弹摧毁了宫殿的教堂，说明了这座城市的所有元素都面临着危险。
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, who recognized the growing rift between the two ends of the city and their associated social classes, was quick to respond.
伊丽莎白女王 王太后认识到城市两端及其相关社会阶层之间日益扩大的裂痕，很快做出了回应。
Given the destruction brought upon the palace and the West End, she quipped that the Royal couple “could now look the East End in the eye.” The experience of German bombing united the city as the Blitz became a collective urban experience.
鉴于宫殿和伦敦西区遭受的破坏，她打趣说，这对皇室夫妇“现在可以直视伦敦东区了”。德国轰炸的经历使整个城市团结起来，闪电战成为一种集体的城市经历。
Although many civilians left the cities and sought refuge in the countryside, most urban dwellers accepted a “new normal.” While the initial shock of the bombing caused concern with horrific attacks in other cities such as Coventry and Liverpool, these effects eventually subsided with subjects accepting their new reality.
尽管许多平民离开城市到乡村寻求庇护，但大多数城市居民接受了“新常态”。虽然爆炸事件最初的冲击引起了人们对考文垂和利物浦等其他城市发生的恐怖袭击的担忧，但随着人们接受新的现实，这些影响最终消退。
Throughout the late summer and early fall, people became conditioned to the wail of sirens as they sounded on a regular basis.
整个夏末秋初，人们习惯于定期响起警报声。
Along with the urban raids, the Germans also switched to night attacks.
除了城市袭击外，德军还转向夜间袭击。
A September 12 poll asked Londoners about their sleep patterns, with 31 percent reporting that they got no sleep at all, 32 percent reported less than four hours, and only 15 percent more than six.
9 月 12 日的一项民意调查询问了伦敦人的睡眠模式，31% 的人表示他们根本没有睡觉，32% 的人表示他们的睡眠时间少于 4 小时，只有 15% 的人超过 6 小时。
In addition to the amount of sleep, 42 percent of men and 19 percent of women spent their nights in bed while 39 percent of men and 46 percent of women slept on sofas or mattresses on the first floor.
除了睡眠时间外，42%的男性和19%的女性晚上都在床上度过，而39%的男性和46%的女性睡在一楼的沙发或床垫上。
But as the Blitz progressed, populations became immune to the noise of the aerial threat and reported receiving more sleep on average as time passed.
但随着闪电战的进展，人们对空中威胁的噪音产生了免疫力，并报告称随着时间的推移，平均睡眠时间增加了。
Morning after a night raid a cafe proprietor in a side street carries on.
夜间突袭后的早晨，小街上的一家咖啡馆老板继续营业。
IWM (HU 105014)
IWM (HU 105014)
Initially shaken by urban attacks, many people also stayed home or avoided work, resulting in some city functions grinding to a halt.
最初受到城市袭击的震惊，许多人也呆在家里或逃避工作，导致一些城市功能陷入停顿。
However, as the initial shock subsided, and much like their sleep patterns, urban dwellers returned to their normal schedules.
然而，随着最初的冲击消退，就像他们的睡眠模式一样，城市居民恢复了正常的作息时间。
Despite the disruption of the German assault and attempt to affect national will, people still needed to pay bills, feed children, and support their families.
尽管德国的进攻遭到破坏并试图影响国民意志，但人们仍然需要支付账单、养活孩子并养家糊口。
As a result, the requirement to earn a paycheck was still a powerful incentive to venture out—and most did.
因此，赚取薪水的要求仍然是冒险冒险的强大动力——而且大多数人都这么做了。
Over time, people resumed their daily schedules despite ongoing German attacks.
随着时间的推移，尽管德国不断发动袭击，人们还是恢复了日常生活。
Douhet’s prophecies regarding mass hysteria resulting in national capitulation fell demonstrably flat.
杜黑关于大规模歇斯底里导致全国投降的预言显然落空了。
With sleep and work patterns affected for a short time, most civilians did not feel the need to take drastic protective measures.
由于睡眠和工作模式短期受到影响，大多数平民并不觉得有必要采取严厉的防护措施。
During the raids, only 9 percent of Londoners took refuge in the public shelters, with 27 percent seeking protection in private ones.
在突袭期间，只有 9% 的伦敦人在公共避难所避难，27% 的伦敦人在私人避难所寻求保护。
For those who did seek shelter, they slowly realized that once a raid passed, most emerged to find very little to fret about.
对于那些确实寻求庇护的人来说，他们慢慢意识到，一旦袭击过去，大多数人都会发现没什么可担心的。
During one nighttime raid a young girl from London left the safety of her home and went outside to observe the attack:
在一次夜间袭击中，一名来自伦敦的年轻女孩离开了安全的家，走到外面观察袭击事件：
“I wasn’t frightened anymore, it was amazing; maybe it’s because of out in the open, you feel more in control when you see what is happening…”
“我不再害怕了，这太神奇了；也许是因为在露天，当你看到正在发生的事情时，你会感觉更能掌控……”
One Briton referred to the aerial onslaught as a “bore rather than a terror.” While London experienced 24 attacks in September and one every night in October, locals found that maintaining a normal daily routine was key to survival and a hedge against losing their morale.
一名英国人将这次空袭称为“令人厌烦而不是恐怖”。虽然伦敦在 9 月份经历了 24 起袭击，10 月份每晚都发生一次袭击，但当地人发现，保持正常的日常生活是生存的关键，也是防止士气丧失的关键。
While many found little to worry about, the raids still had deadly consequences: most sources claim over 23,000 people killed during the Blitz, with an additional 30,000 wounded.
尽管许多人没有什么可担心的，但袭击仍然造成了致命的后果：大多数消息来源称，闪电战中有超过 23,000 人死亡，另有 30,000 人受伤。
As the main focus of German bombing, Londoners suffered the heaviest losses.
作为德军轰炸的主要焦点，伦敦人损失最为惨重。
Despite the damage and death, Britons developed a greater sense of purpose under the rain of bombs.
尽管遭受了破坏和死亡，英国人在炸弹雨下却形成了更大的使命感。
They became more united and resolute.
他们变得更加团结、更加坚定。
By November, a Gallup Poll showed that 80 percent of those surveyed were confident that Britian would win in the end.
到 11 月，盖洛普民意调查显示，80% 的受访者相信英国最终会获胜。
Such numbers did not support the ideas espoused by early airpower advocates.
这些数字并不支持早期空中力量倡导者所拥护的想法。
If anything, national sentiment during the Blitz actually proved the very opposite.
如果说有什么不同的话，那就是闪电战期间的民族情绪实际上恰恰相反。
While more intense bombing occurred over Germany and Japan by the Allies in 1944–45, neither of those populations reflected Douhet’s prophecies either.
虽然 1944-45 年盟军对德国和日本进行了更猛烈的轰炸，但这些人口也没有反映杜黑的预言。
While those Axis populations were under totalitarian rule and had little choice, they too did not crack under an aerial offensive.
尽管这些轴心国人民处于极权统治之下，别无选择，但他们也没有在空中进攻下崩溃。
In the end, the Blitz illustrated the resiliency of a population, the limits of airpower, and problems with an interwar theory that promised more than it delivered.
最后，闪电战说明了人口的弹性、空中力量的局限性，以及两次世界大战之间承诺多于兑现的理论的问题。
John Curatola is the Samuel Zemurray Stone Senior Historian at the Jenny Craig Institute for the Study of War and Democracy.
约翰·库拉托拉 (John Curatola) 是珍妮·克雷格战争与民主研究所塞缪尔·泽默里·斯通 (Samuel Zemurray Stone) 的高级历史学家。
Churchill’s famous quip about the Royal Air Force’s “few” was inspirational, but Fighter Command wasn’t so few and even had several advantages.
丘吉尔关于英国皇家空军“少数”的名言很鼓舞人心，但战斗机司令部的数量并不那么少，甚至有几个优势。
The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League served as inspiration for young women across the country and opened the door further for women’s professional sports.
全美女子职业棒球联盟为全国年轻女性提供了灵感，并进一步为女子职业运动打开了大门。
Joseph R.
约瑟夫·R。
Beyrle's experience captures the initiative demanded of airborne soldiers, the brutality endured by prisoners of war, and the unlikely battlefield cooperation between American and Soviet soldiers during the final months of the war.
拜尔的经历体现了空降兵所需要的主动性、战俘所遭受的残酷以及战争最后几个月美国和苏联士兵之间不太可能的战场合作。
In the letter, Major Richard “Dick” Winters responded to Stephen Ambrose's request for his thoughts on the strain of command, the problems he faced during the war, and the living conditions his soldiers endured.
在信中，理查德·“迪克”·温特斯少校回应了斯蒂芬·安布罗斯关于他对指挥压力、他在战争期间面临的问题以及他的士兵所忍受的生活条件的看法的请求。
What emerged was also a concise explanation of Winters’s leadership philosophy.
随之而来的是对温特斯领导哲学的简洁解释。
At The National WWII Museum, remembering the anniversary of September 11 means remembering all those who perished that day and recognizing the many different stories they carried with them.
在国家二战博物馆，纪念 9 月 11 日的周年纪念意味着纪念那天所有遇难的人，并认识到他们所承载的许多不同的故事。
At The National WWII Museum, visitors can discover artifacts carried, worn, and used by paratroopers of the 101st Airborne alongside items that tell the story of Band of Brothers itself.
在国家二战博物馆，游客可以发现第 101 空降师伞兵携带、佩戴和使用的文物，以及讲述兄弟连本身故事的物品。
During World War II, ship names often referenced earlier eras of American history.
第二次世界大战期间，舰艇名称经常引用美国历史的早期时期。
Today, the US Navy continues its efforts to memorialize the country’s origins by upholding naming traditions that hark back more than 160 years.
如今，美国海军继续努力维护 160 多年前的命名传统，以纪念国家的起源。
Initially, hell ships moved Allied POWs to areas where their labor was needed, such as the Japanese main islands and other recently conquered regions, but later, they also moved prisoners to prevent them from being liberated by advancing Allied forces.
最初，地狱船将盟军战俘转移到需要他们劳动力的地区，例如日本主岛和其他最近征服的地区，但后来，它们也转移囚犯，以防止他们被前进的盟军解放。
945 Magazine Street, New Orleans, LA 70130 info@nationalww2museum.org 504-528-1944
945 Magazine Street, 新奥尔良, LA 70130 info@nationalww2museum.org 504-528-1944