Scaling Ethereum L1 and L2s in 2025 and beyond

Special thanks to Tim Beiko, Justin Drake, and developers from various L2 teams for feedback and review

特别感谢 Tim Beiko、Justin Drake 以及各个 L2 团队的开发人员提供的反馈和审核

The goal of Ethereum is the same as what it has been from day 1: building a global, censorship-resistant permissionless blockchain .

以太坊的目标与第一天以来的目标相同：建立一个全球性的、抗审查的、无需许可的区块链。

A free and open platform for decentralized applications, built upon the same principles (what we might call today the regen and cypherpunk ethos) as GNU + Linux, Mozilla, Tor, Wikipedia, and many other great free and open source software projects that came before it.

一个用于去中心化应用程序的免费开放平台，建立在与 GNU + Linux、Mozilla、Tor、维基百科以及之前的许多其他伟大的自由和开源软件项目相同的原则（我们今天称之为 regen 和 cypherpunk 精神）之上。

Over the past ten years, Ethereum has also evolved another property that I have come to greatly appreciate: in addition to the innovation in cryptography and economics, Ethereum is also an innovation in social technology .

在过去的十年里，以太坊还演化出了另一个让我非常欣赏的属性：除了密码学和经济学上的创新，以太坊也是社交技术上的创新。

Ethereum as an ecosystem is a working, live demonstration of a new, more open and decentralized way of building things together.

以太坊作为一个生态系统，是一种新的、更开放和去中心化的共同构建方式的有效、现场演示。

Political philosopher Ahmed Gatnash describes his experience at Devcon as follows :

政治哲学家艾哈迈德·加特纳什 (Ahmed Gatnash) 描述了他在 Devcon 上的经历：

...

...

A glimpse of what an alternative world could look like - one mostly free of gatekeeping, and with no attachment to legacy systems.

一睹另类世界的面貌——一个几乎没有看门人的世界，并且不依赖于遗留系统。

In its inversion of society's standard status systems, the people who are held in highest social status here are the nerds who spend all their time hyper focused on independently solving a problem that they really deeply care about, not playing a game to climb the hierarchies of legacy institutions and amass power.

在社会标准地位体系的倒置中，这里拥有最高社会地位的人是那些把所有时间都花在独立解决他们真正关心的问题上的书呆子，而不是玩游戏来攀登遗留机构的等级制度并积累权力。

Almost all the power here was soft power.

这里几乎所有的权力都是软实力。

I found it beautiful and very inspiring - it makes you feel like anything would be possible in a world like this, and that a world like this is actually within reach.

我发现它很美丽而且非常鼓舞人心——它让你觉得在这样的世界里一切皆有可能，而且这样的世界实际上是触手可及的。

The technical project and the social project are inherently intertwined .

技术项目和社会项目本质上是交织在一起的。

If you have a decentralized technical system at time T, but a centralized social process maintaining it, there is no guarantee that your technical system will still be decentralized at time T+1.

如果你在时间T有一个去中心化的技术系统，但是有一个中心化的社会流程来维护它，那么不能保证你的技术系统在时间T+1仍然是去中心化的。

Similarly, the social process is kept alive in many ways by the technology: the tech brings in users, the ecosystem made possible by the tech provides incentives for developers to come and stay, it keeps the community grounded and focused on building rather than just socializing, and so on.

同样，技术在很多方面使社交过程保持活力：技术带来了用户，技术带来的生态系统为开发人员的到来和留下来提供了激励，它使社区扎根并专注于建设而不仅仅是社交，等等。

Where you can use Ethereum to pay for things around the world, Oct 2024.

2024 年 10 月，您可以使用以太坊支付世界各地的费用。

Source .

来源。

As a result of ten years of hard work governed by this mix of technical and social properties, Ethereum has come to embody another important quality: Ethereum does useful things for people, at scale .

经过十年的技术和社会属性组合的努力工作，以太坊已经体现了另一个重要的品质：以太坊大规模地为人们做有用的事情。

Millions of people hold ETH or stablecoins as a form of savings, and many more use these assets for payment: I'm one of them.

数百万人持有 ETH 或稳定币作为储蓄形式，还有更多人使用这些资产进行支付：我就是其中之一。

It has effective, working privacy tools that I use to pay for VPNs to protect my internet data.

它有有效、有效的隐私工具，我用它来支付 VPN 费用，以保护我的互联网数据。

It has ENS, a robust decentralized alternative to DNS and more generally public key infrastructure.

它拥有 ENS，这是 DNS 的强大去中心化替代品以及更普遍的公钥基础设施。

It has working and easy-to-use Twitter alternatives.

它有有效且易于使用的 Twitter 替代品。

It has defi tools that offer millions of people higher-yielding low-risk assets than what they can access in tradfi.

它拥有 defi 工具，可以为数百万人提供比 tradfi 更高收益的低风险资产。

Five years ago, I was not comfortable talking about the latter use case for one primary reason: the infrastructure and the code were not mature, we were only a few years removed from the massive and highly traumatic smart contract hacks of 2016-17, and there is no point in having a 7% APY instead of a 5% APY if every year there is a 5% chance you will instead get a -100% APY .

五年前，我不太愿意谈论后一个用例，主要原因是：基础设施和代码还不成熟，我们距离 2016-17 年大规模且造成严重创伤的智能合约黑客攻击只有几年时间，如果每年都有 5% 的机会获得 -100% APY，那么采用 7% APY 而不是 5% APY 是没有意义的。

On top of this, transaction fees were too high to make these things usable at scale.

最重要的是，交易费用太高，无法大规模使用这些东西。

Today, these tools have shown their resilience over time , the quality of auditing tools has increased, and we are increasingly confident in their security.

如今，随着时间的推移，这些工具已经显示出其弹性，审计工具的质量不断提高，我们对其安全性越来越有信心。

We know what not to do .

我们知道什么不该做。

L2 scaling is working .

L2 缩放正在发挥作用。

Transaction fees have been very low for almost a year .

近一年来交易费用一直非常低。

We need to continue building up the technical and social properties, and the utility, of Ethereum .

我们需要继续建立以太坊的技术和社会属性以及实用性。

If we have the former, but not the latter, then we devolve into a more-and-more-ineffective "decel" community that can howl into the wind about how various mainstream actors are immoral and bad, but has no position to actually offer a better alternative.

如果我们有前者，但没有后者，那么我们就会沦为一个越来越无效的“减速”社区，它可以对各种主流行为者如何不道德和邪恶咆哮，但没有立场真正提供更好的选择。

If wed have the latter, but not the former, then we have exactly the Wall Street greed-is-good mentality that many of us came here precisely to escape .

如果我们有后者，但没有前者，那么我们就拥有了华尔街贪婪就是好的心态，而我们中的许多人来到这里正是为了逃避这种心态。

There are many implications of the duality that I have just described.

我刚才描述的二元性有很多含义。

In this post, I want to focus on a specific one, which matters greatly Ethereum's users in the short and medium term: Ethereum's scaling strategy .

在这篇文章中，我想重点关注一个在中短期内对以太坊用户非常重要的具体问题：以太坊的扩容策略。

Today, the path that we are taking to scale Ethereum is layer 2 protocols (L2s) .

今天，我们扩展以太坊的路径是第 2 层协议 (L2s)。

The L2s of 2025 are a far cry from the early experiments they were in 2019: they have reached key decentralization milestones , they are securing billions of dollars of value, and they are currently scaling Ethereum's transaction capacity by a factor of 17x , dropping fees by a similar amount.

2025 年的 L2 与 2019 年的早期实验相去甚远：它们已经达到了关键的去中心化里程碑，它们正在确保数十亿美元的价值，并且它们目前正在将以太坊的交易容量扩大 17 倍，费用也降低了类似的数量。

Left: stage 1 and stage 2 rollups.

左：第 1 阶段和第 2 阶段汇总。

On Jan 22, Ink has joined as the sixth stage 1+ rollup (and third full-EVM stage 1+ rollup).

1 月 22 日，Ink 作为第六个阶段 1+ 汇总（以及第三个完整 EVM 阶段 1+ 汇总）加入。

Right, top rollups by TPS, with Base leading at roughly 40% of Ethereum's capacity.

右图是 TPS 的顶部汇总，其中 Base 领先，约占以太坊容量的 40%。

This is all happening just in time for a wave of successful applications: various defi platforms , social networks , prediction markets , exotic contraptions like Worldchain (now with 10 million users ) and more.

这一切的发生恰逢一波成功的应用程序：各种 defi 平台、社交网络、预测市场、像 Worldchain（现在拥有 1000 万用户）这样的奇特装置等等。

The "enterprise blockchain" movement, widely viewed as a dead end after the failure of consortium blockchains in 2010s, is coming back to life with L2s, with Soneium providing a leading example.

自 2010 年代联盟链失败后，“企业区块链”运动被广泛视为死胡同，但随着 L2 的出现，“企业区块链”运动又重新焕发活力，Soneium 就是一个典型的例子。

These successes are also a testament to the social side of Ethereum's decentralized and modular approach to scaling : instead of the Ethereum Foundation having to seek out all of these users itself, there are dozens of independent entities who are motivated to do so.

这些成功也证明了以太坊去中心化和模块化扩展方法的社会方面：以太坊基金会不必自己寻找所有这些用户，而是有数十个独立实体有动力这样做。

These entities have also made crucial contributions to the technology, without which Ethereum would not be anywhere close to as far as it is today.

这些实体也对该技术做出了至关重要的贡献，没有这些实体，以太坊就不会达到今天的水平。

And as a result, we are finally approaching escape velocity.

结果，我们终于接近逃逸速度。

The first problem is an easy-to-understand technical challenge, and has an easy-to-describe (but hard-to-implement) technical solution: give Ethereum more blobs .

第一个问题是一个易于理解的技术挑战，并且有一个易于描述（但难以实现）的技术解决方案：给以太坊更多的 blob 。

In addition to this, the L1 can also do moderate amount of scaling in the short term, as well as improvements to proof of stake , stateless and light verification , storage , the EVM and cryptography .

除此之外，L1 还可以在短期内进行适度的扩展，以及对权益证明、无状态和轻验证、存储、EVM 和密码学的改进。

The second problem, which has received the bulk of public attention, is a coordination problem .

第二个问题是公众普遍关注的协调问题。

Ethereum is no stranger to performing complex technical tasks between multiple teams: after all, we did the merge.

以太坊对于在多个团队之间执行复杂的技术任务并不陌生：毕竟，我们进行了合并。

Here, the coordination problem is more challenging, because of the greater number and diversity of actors and goals andt the fact that the process is starting much later in the game.

在这里，协调问题更具挑战性，因为参与者和目标的数量和多样性更大，而且该过程在游戏中开始得更晚。

But even still, our ecosystem has solved difficult problems before, and we can do so again.

但即便如此，我们的生态系统之前已经解决了难题，而且我们可以再次这样做。

One possible shortcut for scaling is to give up on L2s, and do everything through L1 with a much higher gas limit (either across many shards, or on one shard).

扩展的一个可能的捷径是放弃 L2，并通过具有更高气体限制的 L1 来完成所有操作（跨多个分片或在一个分片上）。

However, this approach compromises too much of the benefits of Ethereum's current social structure , which has been so effective at getting the benefits of different forms of research, development and ecosystem-building culture at the same time.

然而，这种方法过多地损害了以太坊当前社会结构的好处，而以太坊当前社会结构在同时获得不同形式的研究、开发和生态系统建设文化的好处方面非常有效。

Hence, instead we should stay the course, continue to scale primarily through L2s, but make sure that L2s actually fulfill the promise that they were meant to fulfill .

因此，我们应该坚持到底，继续主要通过 L2 进行扩展，但要确保 L2 真正履行其应履行的承诺。

Let us now go through each of these topic areas in more detail.

现在让我们更详细地讨论每个主题领域。

With EIP-4844, we now have 3 blobs per slot, or a data bandwidth of 384 kB per slot.

借助 EIP-4844，我们现在每个插槽有 3 个 blob，或者每个插槽的数据带宽为 384 kB。

Quick napkin math suggests that this is 32 kB per second, and each transaction takes about 150 bytes onchain, so we get ~210 tx/sec.

快速计算表明，这是每秒 32 kB，每笔交易在链上大约需要 150 字节，因此我们每秒大约获得 210 笔交易。

L2beat data gives us almost exactly this number .

L2beat 数据几乎准确地为我们提供了这个数字。

With Pectra, scheduled for release in March , we plan to double this to 6 blobs per slot .

对于计划于 3 月份发布的 Pectra，我们计划将其增加一倍，达到每个插槽 6 个 blob。

The current goal of Fusaka is to focus primarily on PeerDAS , ideally having nothing other than PeerDAS and EOF .

Fusaka 当前的目标是主要关注 PeerDAS，理想情况下除了 PeerDAS 和 EOF 之外什么都没有。

PeerDAS could increase the blob count immediately by another 2-4x, and then 8x or more over time.

PeerDAS 可以立即将 blob 计数再增加 2-4 倍，然后随着时间的推移增加 8 倍或更多。

After that point, the goal is to keep improving the technology to increase the blob count further.

在那之后，目标是不断改进技术以进一步增加斑点数量。

When we get to 2D sampling , we can reach 128 blobs per slot, and then keep going further.

当我们进行 2D 采样时，我们可以达到每个槽 128 个斑点，然后继续前进。

With this, and improvements to data compression , we can reach 100,000 TPS onchain.

有了这个，再加上数据压缩的改进，我们可以在链上达到 100,000 TPS。

So far, the above is all a re-statement of the pre-2025 status quo roadmap.

至此，以上都是对2025年前现状路线图的重新表述。

The key question is: what can we actually change to make this go faster ?

关键问题是：我们实际上可以改变什么来让事情进展得更快？

My answers are the following:

我的回答如下：

Today, there are three stage 1 rollups (Optimism, Arbitrum, Ink) and three stage 2 rollups (DeGate, zk.money, Fuel).

今天，有三个第一阶段汇总（Optimism、Arbitrum、Ink）和三个第二阶段汇总（DeGate、zk.money、Fuel）。

The majority of activity still happens on stage 0 rollups (ie.

大多数活动仍然发生在第 0 阶段汇总（即

multisigs).

多重签名）。

This needs to change.

这需要改变。

A big reason why this has not changed faster, is that building a proof system, and getting enough confidence in it to be willing to give up training wheels and rely fully on it for security, is hard.

这种情况没有更快改变的一个重要原因是，构建一个证明系统并对其有足够的信心以愿意放弃辅助轮并完全依赖它来确保安全性是很困难的。

Today, we should work on both in parallel.

今天，我们应该同时致力于这两方面的工作。

For stage 2 + multi-provers + formal verification, the roadmap is relatively well-understood.

对于第 2 阶段 + 多证明者 + 形式化验证，路线图相对容易理解。

The main practical place where we can accelerate is to cooperate more on software stacks, reducing the need for duplicate work while increasing interoperability as a by-product.

我们可以加速的主要实际地方是在软件堆栈上进行更多合作，减少重复工作的需要，同时作为副产品提高互操作性。

Native rollups are still an early-stage idea.

原生汇总仍然是一个早期的想法。

There is a lot of active thinking to be done , particularly on the topic of how to make a native rollup precompile maximally flexible.

有很多积极的思考要做，特别是在如何使本机汇总预编译最大程度地灵活这一主题上。

An ideal goal would be for it to support not just exact clones of the EVM, but also EVMs with various arbitrary changes, in such a way that an L2 with a modified EVM could still use the native rollup precompile, and "bring its own prover" only for the modifications.

一个理想的目标是它不仅支持 EVM 的精确克隆，而且还支持具有各种任意更改的 EVM，这样，具有修改后的 EVM 的 L2 仍然可以使用本机汇总预编译，并且仅针对修改“自带证明器”。

This could be done for precompiles, opcodes, the state tree, and potentially other pieces.

这可以针对预编译、操作码、状态树和其他可能的部分来完成。

The goal is to make it so that moving assets between and using applications on different L2s has the same experience as you would have if they were different "shards" of the same blockchain.

目标是使在不同 L2 上移动资产和使用应用程序具有与同一区块链的不同“分片”相同的体验。

There has for a few months been a pretty well-understood roadmap for how to do this:

几个月来，关于如何做到这一点，已经有了一个非常容易理解的路线图：

As long as standards like these are satisfied, there is still a lot of room for L2s to have very different properties from each other: experimenting with different virtual machines, different sequencing models, scale vs security tradeoffs, and other differences.

只要满足这些标准，L2 仍有很大的空间可以具有彼此截然不同的属性：尝试不同的虚拟机、不同的排序模型、规模与安全性权衡以及其他差异。

However, it must be clear to users and application developers what level of security they are getting.

然而，用户和应用程序开发人员必须清楚他们所获得的安全级别。

To make faster progress, a large share of the work can be done by entities that operate across the ecosystem: the Ethereum Foundation, client development teams, major application teams, etc. This will reduce coordination effort and make adopting standards more of a no-brainer, because the work that will be done by each individual L2 and wallet will be reduced.

为了取得更快的进展，大部分工作可以由跨生态系统运营的实体来完成：以太坊基金会、客户端开发团队、主要应用程序团队等。这将减少协调工作，并使标准的采用变得更容易，因为每个单独的 L2 和钱包将完成的工作将会减少。

However, L2s and wallets, as extensions of Ethereum, both still need to step up work on the last mile of actually implementing these features and bringing them to users.

然而，L2 和钱包作为以太坊的扩展，仍然需要在最后一公里加紧工作，将这些功能真正实现并带给用户。

We should pursue a multi-pronged strategy, to cover all major possible sources of the value of ETH as a triple-point asset .

我们应该采取多管齐下的策略，涵盖 ETH 作为三点资产的所有主要可能的价值来源。

Some key planks of that strategy could be the following:

该策略的一些关键内容可能如下：

Ethereum has matured as a technology stack and a social ecosystem, bringing us closer to a more free and open future where hundreds of millions of people can benefit from crypto assets and decentralized applications.

以太坊作为一个技术堆栈和社交生态系统已经成熟，使我们更接近一个更加自由和开放的未来，数亿人可以从加密资产和去中心化应用程序中受益。

However, there is a lot of work to be done, and now is the time to double down.

然而，还有很多工作要做，现在是加倍努力的时候了。

If you're an L2 developer, contribute to the tooling to make blobs scale more safely, the code to scale the execution of your EVM, and the features and standards to make the L2 interoperable.

如果您是 L2 开发人员，请贡献使 Blob 更安全地扩展的工具、扩展 EVM 执行的代码以及使 L2 可互操作的功能和标准。

If you are a wallet developer, be similarly engaged in contributing to and implementing standards to make the ecosystem more seamless for users, and at the same time as secure and decentralized as it was when Ethereum was just an L1.

如果您是钱包开发人员，请同样参与贡献和实施标准，以使生态系统对用户来说更加无缝，同时像以太坊只是 L1 时一样安全和去中心化。

If you are an ETH holder or community member, actively participate in these discussions; there are many areas that still require active thought and brainstorming.

如果您是 ETH 持有者或社区成员，请积极参与这些讨论；还有很多领域仍然需要积极思考和集思广益。

The future of Ethereum depends on every one of us playing an active role.

以太坊的未来取决于我们每个人发挥积极作用。