The American Yawp
Striking steel mill workers holding bulletins in Chicago, Illinois, September 22, 1919.
1919 年 9 月 22 日，伊利诺伊州芝加哥，罢工的钢厂工人举着公告。
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World War I (“The Great War”) toppled empires, created new nations, and sparked tensions that would explode across future years.
第一次世界大战（“伟大的战争”）推翻了帝国，创建了新的国家，并引发了在未来几年内爆发的紧张局势。
On the battlefield, gruesome modern weaponry wrecked an entire generation of young men.
在战场上，可怕的现代武器毁掉了整整一代年轻人。
The United States entered the conflict in 1917 and was never again the same.
美国于 1917 年卷入冲突，从此不再一样。
The war heralded to the world the United States’ potential as a global military power, and, domestically, it advanced but then beat back American progressivism by unleashing vicious waves of repression.
这场战争向世界展示了美国作为全球军事强国的潜力，在国内，它进步了，但随后又通过发动恶性镇压浪潮击退了美国的进步主义。
The war simultaneously stoked national pride and fueled disenchantments that burst Progressive Era hopes for the modern world.
战争同时激发了民族自豪感，也激发了失望情绪，打破了进步时代对现代世界的希望。
And it laid the groundwork for a global depression, a second world war, and an entire history of national, religious, and cultural conflict around the globe.
它为全球萧条、第二次世界大战以及全球民族、宗教和文化冲突的整个历史奠定了基础。
As the German empire rose in power and influence at the end of the nineteenth century, skilled diplomats maneuvered this disruption of traditional powers and influences into several decades of European peace.
随着德意志帝国在十九世纪末的实力和影响力的崛起，熟练的外交官利用这种对传统权力和影响力的破坏来实现几十年的欧洲和平。
In Germany, however, a new ambitious monarch would overshadow years of tactful diplomacy.
然而，在德国，一位雄心勃勃的新君主将为多年的机智外交蒙上阴影。
Wilhelm II rose to the German throne in 1888.
Wilhelm II rose to the German throne in 1888.
He admired the British Empire of his grandmother, Queen Victoria, and envied the Royal Navy of Great Britain so much that he attempted to build a rival German navy and plant colonies around the globe.
他钦佩祖母维多利亚女王的大英帝国，并非常羡慕英国皇家海军，以至于他试图建立与德国海军竞争的海军，并在全球建立殖民地。
The British viewed the prospect of a German navy as a strategic threat, but, jealous of what he perceived as a lack of prestige in the world, Wilhelm II pressed Germany’s case for access to colonies and symbols of status suitable for a world power.
英国人将德国海军的前景视为一种战略威胁，但由于嫉妒德国海军在世界上缺乏威望，威廉二世极力主张德国获得适合世界强国的殖民地和地位象征。
Wilhelm’s maneuvers and Germany’s rise spawned a new system of alliances as rival nations warily watched Germany’s expansion.
威廉的策略和德国的崛起催生了一个新的联盟体系，而敌对国家则警惕地注视着德国的扩张。
In 1892, German posturing worried the leaders of Russia and France and prompted a defensive alliance to counter the existing triple threat between Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Italy.
1892年，德国的姿态令俄罗斯和法国领导人感到担忧，并促使俄罗斯和法国结成防御联盟，以应对德国、奥匈帝国和意大利之间现有的三重威胁。
Britain’s Queen Victoria remained unassociated with the alliances until a series of diplomatic crises and an emerging German naval threat led to British agreements with Tsar Nicholas II and French President Émile Loubet in the early twentieth century.
英国维多利亚女王一直与这些联盟无关，直到二十世纪初一系列外交危机和德国海军威胁的出现导致英国与沙皇尼古拉二世和法国总统埃米尔·卢贝达成协议。
(The alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia became known as the Triple Entente.)
（英国、法国和俄罗斯之间的联盟被称为“三国协约”。）
The other great threat to European peace was the Ottoman Empire, in Turkey.
对欧洲和平的另一个巨大威胁是土耳其的奥斯曼帝国。
While the leaders of the Austro-Hungarian Empire showed little interest in colonies elsewhere, Turkish lands on its southern border appealed to their strategic goals.
虽然奥匈帝国的领导人对其他地方的殖民地没有什么兴趣，但土耳其南部边境的土地却满足了他们的战略目标。
However, Austro-Hungarian expansion in Europe worried Tsar Nicholas II, who saw Russia as both the historic guarantor of the Slavic nations in the Balkans and the competitor for territories governed by the Ottoman Empire.
然而，奥匈帝国在欧洲的扩张令沙皇尼古拉二世感到担忧，他认为俄罗斯既是巴尔干斯拉夫国家的历史保障者，又是奥斯曼帝国统治领土的竞争者。
By 1914, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had control of Bosnia and Herzegovina and viewed Slavic Serbia, a nation protected by Russia, as its next challenge.
到1914年，奥匈帝国控制了波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那，并将受俄罗斯保护的斯拉夫塞尔维亚视为下一个挑战。
On June 28, 1914, after Serbian Gavrilo Princip assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heirs to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Grand Duchess Sophie, vengeful nationalist leaders believed the time had arrived to eliminate the rebellious ethnic Serbian threat.
1914 年 6 月 28 日，塞尔维亚人加夫里洛·普林西普刺杀了奥匈帝国王位继承人弗朗茨·斐迪南大公和他的妻子索菲大公后，复仇心切的民族主义领导人认为消除叛逆的塞尔维亚族威胁的时机已经到来。
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On the other side of the Atlantic, the United States played an insignificant role in global diplomacy—it rarely forayed into internal European politics.
在大西洋的另一边，美国在全球外交中扮演的角色微不足道——它很少涉足欧洲内部政治。
The federal government did not participate in international diplomatic alliances but nevertheless championed and assisted with the expansion of the transatlantic economy.
联邦政府没有参加国际外交联盟，但仍然支持和协助跨大西洋经济的扩张。
American businesses and consumers benefited from the trade generated as the result of the extended period of European peace.
美国企业和消费者从欧洲长期和平所产生的贸易中受益。
Stated American attitudes toward international affairs followed the advice given by President George Washington in his 1796 Farewell Address, 120 years before America’s entry into World War I.
美国对国际事务的态度遵循了乔治·华盛顿总统在 1796 年告别演说中提出的建议，即美国参加第一次世界大战 120 年前。
He had recommended that his fellow countrymen avoid “foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues” and “those overgrown military establishments which, under any form of government, are inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly hostile to republican liberty.” 2
他建议他的同胞避免“外国联盟、依附和阴谋”和“那些过度发展的军事机构，它们在任何形式的政府下都不利于自由，并且被视为特别敌视共和自由。” 2
A foreign policy of neutrality reflected America’s inward-looking focus on the construction and management of its new powerful industrial economy (built in large part with foreign capital).
中立的外交政策反映了美国对建设和管理其新的强大工业经济（大部分由外国资本建立）的内向关注。
The federal government possessed limited diplomatic tools with which to engage in international struggles for world power.
联邦政府用于参与争夺世界权力的国际斗争的外交工具有限。
America’s small and increasingly antiquated military precluded forceful coercion and left American diplomats to persuade by reason, appeals to justice, or economic coercion.
美国规模小且日益陈旧的军队阻止了强力胁迫，让美国外交官只能通过讲道理、诉诸正义或经济胁迫来说服。
But in the 1880s, as Americans embarked upon empire, Congress authorized the construction of a modern navy.
但在 1880 年代，随着美国人开始建立帝国，国会授权建立一支现代海军。
The army nevertheless remained small and underfunded compared to the armies of many industrializing nations.
尽管如此，与许多工业化国家的军队相比，军队仍然规模较小且资金不足。
After the turn of the century, the army and navy faced a great deal of organizational uncertainty.
世纪之交后，陆军和海军面临着很大的组织不确定性。
New technologies—airplanes, motor vehicles, submarines, modern artillery—stressed the capability of army and navy personnel to effectively procure and use them.
飞机、机动车辆、潜艇、现代火炮等新技术强调了陆军和海军人员有效采购和使用这些技术的能力。
The nation’s army could police Native Americans in the West and garrison recent overseas acquisitions, but it could not sustain a full-blown conflict of any size.
美国军队可以监管西部的美洲原住民，并驻守最近的海外收购地，但它无法维持任何规模的全面冲突。
The Davis Act of 1908 and the National Defense Act of 1916 inaugurated the rise of the modern versions of the National Guard and military reserves.
1908 年的《戴维斯法案》和 1916 年的《国防法案》开启了现代版国民警卫队和军事预备队的兴起。
A system of state-administered units available for local emergencies that received conditional federal funding for training could be activated for use in international wars.
可以启动一个由国家管理的单位组成的系统，以应对当地的紧急情况，并获得有条件的联邦培训资金，以用于国际战争。
The National Guard program encompassed individual units separated by state borders.
国民警卫队计划包括由州界分隔的各个单位。
The program supplied summer training for college students as a reserve officer corps.
该项目为大学生作为预备役军官提供夏季训练。
Federal and state governments now had a long-term strategic reserve of trained soldiers and sailors.
联邦和州政府现在拥有训练有素的士兵和水手的长期战略储备。
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Border troubles in Mexico served as an important field test for modern American military forces.
墨西哥边境问题对现代美国军事力量来说是一次重要的实地考验。
Revolution and chaos threatened American business interests in Mexico.
革命和混乱威胁着美国在墨西哥的商业利益。
Mexican reformer Francisco Madero challenged Porfirio Diaz’s corrupt and unpopular conservative regime.
墨西哥改革家弗朗西斯科·马德罗挑战了波菲里奥·迪亚兹腐败且不得人心的保守政权。
He was jailed, fled to San Antonio, and penned the Plan of San Luis Potosí, paving the way for the Mexican Revolution and the rise of armed revolutionaries across the country.
他被监禁，逃到圣安东尼奥，并起草了圣路易斯波托西计划，为墨西哥革命和全国武装革命者的崛起铺平了道路。
In April 1914, President Woodrow Wilson ordered Marines to accompany a naval escort to Veracruz on the lower eastern coast of Mexico.
1914 年 4 月，伍德罗·威尔逊总统命令海军陆战队护送一支海军护航舰前往墨西哥下东海岸的韦拉克鲁斯。
After a brief battle, the Marines supervised the city government and prevented shipments of German arms to Mexican leader Victoriano Huerta until they departed in November 1914.
经过短暂的战斗后，海军陆战队监督了市政府，并阻止德国武器运送给墨西哥领导人维多利亚诺·韦尔塔，直到他们于 1914 年 11 月离开。
The raid emphasized the continued reliance on naval forces and the difficulty in modernizing the military during a period of European imperial influence in the Caribbean and elsewhere.
这次袭击强调了在欧洲帝国对加勒比海和其他地区施加影响期间，对海军的持续依赖以及军队现代化的困难。
The threat of war in Europe enabled passage of the Naval Act of 1916.
欧洲战争的威胁促成了 1916 年《海军法》的通过。
President Wilson declared that the national goal was to build the Navy as “incomparably, the greatest .
威尔逊总统宣称，国家目标是将海军建设为“无与伦比的、最伟大的……”。
.
。
.
。
in the world.” And yet Mexico still beckoned.
在世界上。”然而墨西哥仍然在向我们招手。
The Wilson administration had withdrawn its support of Diaz but watched warily as the revolution devolved into assassinations and deceit.
威尔逊政府撤回了对迪亚兹的支持，但警惕地注视着革命演变成暗杀和欺骗。
In 1916, Pancho Villa, a popular revolutionary in northern Mexico, raided Columbus, New Mexico, after being provoked by American support for his rivals.
1916 年，墨西哥北部的民众革命家潘乔·维拉 (Pancho Villa) 在受到美国对其竞争对手的支持的刺激后，袭击了新墨西哥州的哥伦布。
His raiders killed seventeen Americans and burned down the town center before American soldiers forced their retreat.
他的袭击者杀死了 17 名美国人，并烧毁了市中心，随后美国士兵迫使他们撤退。
In response, President Wilson commissioned Army general John “Black Jack” Pershing to capture Villa and disperse his rebels.
作为回应，威尔逊总统委托陆军将军约翰·“黑杰克”·潘兴占领维拉并驱散叛军。
Motorized vehicles, reconnaissance aircraft, and the wireless telegraph aided in the pursuit of Villa.
机动车辆、侦察机和无线电报协助追捕维拉。
Motorized vehicles in particular allowed General Pershing to obtain supplies without relying on railroads controlled by the Mexican government.
特别是机动车辆使潘兴将军能够在不依赖墨西哥政府控制的铁路的情况下获得补给。
The aircraft assigned to the campaign crashed or were grounded by mechanical malfunctions, but they provided invaluable lessons in their worth and use in war.
分配给这次战役的飞机因机械故障而坠毁或停飞，但它们为它们在战争中的价值和用途提供了宝贵的经验教训。
Wilson used the powers of the new National Defense Act to mobilize over one hundred thousand National Guardsmen across the country as a show of force in northern Mexico.
威尔逊利用新国防法的权力，在全国动员了十万多名国民警卫队人员，在墨西哥北部展示武力。
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The conflict between the United States and Mexico might have escalated into full-scale war if the international crisis in Europe had not overwhelmed the public’s attention.
如果不是欧洲国际危机引起了公众的关注，美国和墨西哥之间的冲突可能会升级为全面战争。
After the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914, President Wilson declared American neutrality.
1914年欧洲战争爆发后，威尔逊总统宣布美国保持中立。
He insisted from the start that the United States be neutral “in fact as well as in name,” a policy the majority of American people enthusiastically endorsed.
他从一开始就坚持美国“实际上和名义上”保持中立，这一政策得到了大多数美国人民的热情支持。
It was unclear, however, what “neutrality” meant in a world of close economic connections.
然而，在经济联系密切的世界中，“中立”意味着什么尚不清楚。
Ties to the British and French proved strong, and those nations obtained far more loans and supplies than the Germans.
事实证明，与英国和法国的联系很牢固，这些国家获得的贷款和供应比德国多得多。
In October 1914, President Wilson approved commercial credit loans to the combatants, which made it increasingly difficult for the nation to claim impartiality as war spread through Europe.
1914 年 10 月，威尔逊总统批准向参战者提供商业信贷，随着战争蔓延到欧洲，国家越来越难以宣称公正。
Trade and financial relations with the Allied nations ultimately drew the United States further into the conflict.
Trade and financial relations with the Allied nations ultimately drew the United States further into the conflict.
In spite of mutually declared blockades between Germany, Great Britain, and France, munitions and other war suppliers in the United States witnessed a brisk and booming increase in business.
尽管德国、英国和法国之间相互宣布封锁，但美国的军火和其他战争供应商的业务仍然蓬勃发展。
The British naval blockades that often stopped or seized ships proved annoying and costly, but the unrestricted and surprise torpedo attacks from German submarines were deadly.
英国的海上封锁经常阻止或扣押船只，事实证明这令人烦恼且代价高昂，但德国潜艇无限制的突然鱼雷攻击却是致命的。
In May 1915, Germans sank the RMS Lusitania .
1915 年 5 月，德国人击沉了皇家邮轮卢西塔尼亚号。
Over a hundred American lives were lost.
Over a hundred American lives were lost.
The attack, coupled with other German attacks on American and British shipping, raised the ire of the public and stoked the desire for war.
这次袭击，加上德国对美国和英国航运的其他袭击，引起了公众的愤怒，并激起了战争的欲望。
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American diplomatic tradition avoided formal alliances, and the Army seemed inadequate for sustained overseas fighting.
美国的外交传统避免正式结盟，陆军似乎不足以应对持续的海外战斗。
However, the United States outdistanced the nations of Europe in one important measure of world power: by 1914, the nation held the top position in the global industrial economy.
然而，美国在衡量世界实力的一项重要指标上远远超过了欧洲国家：到 1914 年，美国在全球工业经济中占据了领先地位。
The United States was producing slightly more than one third of the world’s manufactured goods, roughly equal to the outputs of France, Great Britain, and Germany combined.
美国生产的制成品略高于世界三分之一，大致相当于法国、英国和德国的产量总和。
After the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and Grand Duchess Sophie, Austria secured the promise of aid from its German ally and issued a list of ten ultimatums to Serbia.
在斐迪南大公和索菲大公被刺杀后，奥地利得到了德国盟友的援助承诺，并向塞尔维亚发出了包含十项最后通牒的清单。
On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia for failure to meet all of the demands.
1914 年 7 月 28 日，奥地利因未能满足所有要求而对塞尔维亚宣战。
Russia, determined to protect Serbia, began to mobilize its armed forces.
俄罗斯决心保护塞尔维亚，开始动员武装部队。
On August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia to protect Austria after warnings directed at Tsar Nicholas II failed to stop Russian preparations for war.
1914 年 8 月 1 日，在针对沙皇尼古拉二世的警告未能阻止俄罗斯的战争准备之后，德国为保护奥地利向俄罗斯宣战。
In spite of the central European focus of the initial crises, the first blow was struck against neutral Belgium in northwestern Europe.
尽管最初危机的焦点是中欧，但第一个打击是针对西北欧的中立比利时。
Germany planned to take advantage of sluggish Russian mobilization by focusing the German army on France.
德国计划利用俄罗斯动员缓慢的机会，将德国军队集中在法国。
German military leaders recycled tactics developed earlier and activated the Schlieffen Plan, which moved German armies rapidly by rail to march through Belgium and into France.
德国军事领导人回收了早期制定的战术并启动了施利芬计划，该计划使德国军队通过铁路快速进军比利时并进入法国。
However, this violation of Belgian neutrality also ensured that Great Britain entered the war against Germany.
然而，这种对比利时中立性的侵犯也确保了英国加入对德国的战争。
On August 4, 1914, Great Britain declared war on Germany for failing to respect Belgium as a neutral nation.
1914 年 8 月 4 日，英国因德国不尊重比利时作为中立国而向德国宣战。
A French assault on German positions.
法军进攻德军阵地。
Champagne, France.
法国香槟。
1917.
1917年。
National Archives.
国家档案馆。
In 1915, the European war had developed into a series of bloody trench stalemates that continued through the following year.
1915年，欧洲战争发展成为一系列血腥的战壕僵局，并持续到次年。
Offensives, largely carried out by British and French armies, achieved nothing but huge numbers of casualties.
主要由英国和法国军队发动的攻势除了造成大量人员伤亡外什么也没造成。
Peripheral campaigns against the Ottoman Empire in Turkey at Gallipoli, throughout the Middle East, and in various parts of Africa either were unsuccessful or had little bearing on the European contest for victory.
在土耳其加里波利、整个中东以及非洲各地针对奥斯曼帝国的外围战役要么不成功，要么对欧洲的胜利争夺影响不大。
The third year of the war, however, witnessed a coup for German military prospects: the regime of Tsar Nicholas II collapsed in Russia in March 1917.
然而，战争的第三年，德国军事前景发生了一场政变：沙皇尼古拉二世政权于 1917 年 3 月在俄罗斯垮台。
At about the same time, the Germans again pursued unrestricted submarine warfare to deprive the Allies of replenishment supplies from the United States.
大约在同一时间，德国人再次进行无限制潜艇战，以剥夺盟军从美国获得的补给物资。
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The Germans, realizing that submarine warfare could spark an American intervention, hoped the European war would be over before American soldiers could arrive in sufficient numbers to alter the balance of power.
德国人意识到潜艇战可能引发美国的干预，希望欧洲战争能够在美国士兵到达足够数量以改变力量平衡之前结束。
A German diplomat, Arthur Zimmermann, planned to complicate the potential American intervention.
德国外交官阿瑟·齐默尔曼 (Arthur Zimmermann) 计划使美国的潜在干预复杂化。
He offered support to the Mexican government via a desperate bid to regain Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
他通过孤注一掷地争取收复德克萨斯州、新墨西哥州和亚利桑那州来向墨西哥政府提供支持。
Mexican national leaders declined the offer, but the revelation of the Zimmermann Telegram helped usher the United States into the war.
墨西哥国家领导人拒绝了这一提议，但齐默尔曼电报的披露帮助美国卷入了战争。
By the fall of 1916 and spring of 1917, President Wilson believed an imminent German victory would drastically and dangerously alter the balance of power in Europe.
到 1916 年秋天和 1917 年春天，威尔逊总统相信德国即将取得的胜利将彻底而危险地改变欧洲的力量平衡。
Submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram, meanwhile, inflamed public opinion.
与此同时，潜艇战和齐默尔曼电报激起了公众舆论。
Congress declared war on Germany on April 4, 1917.
国会于 1917 年 4 月 4 日对德国宣战。
The nation entered a war three thousand miles away with a small and unprepared military.
这个国家以一支小规模且毫无准备的军队投入了三千英里之外的战争。
The United States was unprepared in nearly every respect for modern war.
美国在几乎所有方面都对现代战争毫无准备。
Considerable time elapsed before an effective army and navy could be assembled, trained, equipped, and deployed to the Western Front in Europe.
经过相当长的时间，一支有效的陆军和海军才得以集结、训练、装备并部署到欧洲西线。
The process of building the army and navy for the war proved to be different from previous conflicts.
事实证明，为战争而建设陆军和海军的过程与以往的冲突不同。
Unlike the largest European military powers of Germany, France, and Austrio-Hungary, no tradition existed in the United States to maintain large standing armed forces or trained military reserves during peacetime.
与德国、法国和奥匈帝国等欧洲最大军事强国不同，美国不存在在和平时期维持庞大常备武装部队或训练有素的军事预备队的传统。
Moreover, there was no American counterpart to the European practice of rapidly equipping, training, and mobilizing reservists and conscripts.
此外，在快速装备、训练和动员预备役军人和义务兵方面，美国没有与欧洲类似的做法。
The U.S. historically relied solely on traditional volunteerism to fill the ranks of the armed forces.
美国历史上完全依靠传统的志愿服务来充实武装部队的队伍。
Notions of patriotic duty and adventure appealed to many young men who not only volunteered for wartime service but sought and paid for their own training at army camps before the war.
爱国责任和冒险的观念吸引了许多年轻人，他们不仅自愿参加战时服役，而且在战前寻求并支付自己在军营接受训练的费用。
American labor organizations favored voluntary service over conscription.
美国劳工组织更倾向于志愿服务而不是征兵。
Labor leader Samuel Gompers argued for volunteerism in letters to the congressional committees considering the question.
工党领袖塞缪尔·冈珀斯在致考虑该问题的国会委员会的信中主张志愿服务。
“The organized labor movement,” he wrote, “has always been fundamentally opposed to compulsion.” Referring to American values as a role model for others, he continued, “It is the hope of organized labor to demonstrate that under voluntary conditions and institutions the Republic of the United States can mobilize its greatest strength, resources and efficiency.” 7
“有组织的劳工运动，”他写道，“一直从根本上反对强迫。”他将美国价值观视为其他国家的榜样，并继续说道，“有组织的劳工希望证明，在自愿的条件和制度下，美利坚合众国可以调动其最大的力量、资源和效率。” 7
The Boy Scouts of America charge up Fifth Avenue in New York City in a “Wake Up, America” parade to support recruitment efforts.
美国童子军在纽约市第五大道举行“美国醒来”游行，以支持招募工作。
Nearly sixty thousand people attended this single parade.
近六万人参加了这一次游行。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
Despite fears of popular resistance, Congress quickly instituted a reasonably equitable and locally administered system to draft men for the military.
尽管担心民众的抵制，国会还是很快建立了一个相当公平的、地方管理的系统来征召军队人员。
On May 18, 1917, Congress approved the Selective Service Act, and President Wilson signed it a week later.
1917 年 5 月 18 日，国会批准了《兵役法》，一周后威尔逊总统签署了该法案。
The new legislation avoided the unpopular system of bonuses and substitutes used during the Civil War and was generally received without major objection by the American people.
新立法避免了内战期间使用的不受欢迎的奖金和替代制度，并且普遍受到美国人民的欢迎，没有出现重大反对。
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8
The conscription act initially required men from ages twenty-one to thirty to register for compulsory military service.
征兵法最初要求二十一岁至三十岁的男性登记服义务兵役。
Basic physical fitness was the primary requirement for service.
基本身体素质是服务的首要要求。
The resulting tests offered the emerging fields of social science a range of data collection tools and new screening methods.
The resulting tests offered the emerging fields of social science a range of data collection tools and new screening methods.
The Army Medical Department examined the general condition of young American men selected for service from the population.
陆军医疗部检查了从民众中挑选服役的年轻美国男子的总体状况。
The Surgeon General compiled his findings from draft records in the 1919 report, “Defects Found in Drafted Men,” a snapshot of the 2.5 million men examined for military service.
卫生局局长根据 1919 年报告《应征入伍男子的缺陷》中的草稿记录整理了他的调查结果，该报告是 250 万名入伍军人检查的快照。
Of that group, 1,533,937 physical defects were recorded (often more than one per individual).
在该组中，记录了 1,533,937 个身体缺陷（通常每个人都有一个以上）。
More than 34 percent of those examined were rejected for service or later discharged for neurological, psychiatric, or mental deficiencies.
超过 34% 的接受检查者因神经、精神或精神缺陷而被拒绝服役或后来出院。
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To provide a basis for the neurological, psychiatric, and mental evaluations, the army used cognitive skills tests to determine intelligence.
为了为神经学、精神病学和精神评估提供基础，军队使用认知技能测试来确定智力。
About 1.9 million men were tested on intelligence.
大约有 190 万名男性接受了智力测试。
Soldiers who could read took the Army Alpha test.
Soldiers who could read took the Army Alpha test.
Illiterates and non-English-speaking immigrants took the nonverbal equivalent, the Army Beta test, which relied on visual testing procedures.
文盲和非英语移民参加了非语言等效测试，即陆军贝塔测试，该测试依赖于视觉测试程序。
Robert M.
罗伯特·M。
Yerkes, president of the American Psychological Association and chairman of the Committee on the Psychological Examination of Recruits, developed and analyzed the tests.
美国心理学会主席兼新兵心理测试委员会主席耶克斯开发并分析了这些测试。
His data argued that the actual mental age of recruits was only about thirteen years.
他的数据表明，新兵的实际心理年龄只有十三岁左右。
Among recent immigrants, he said, it was even lower.
他说，在新移民中，这一比例甚至更低。
As a eugenicist, he interpreted the results as roughly equivalent to a mild level of retardation and as an indication of racial deterioration.
作为一名优生学家，他将这一结果解释为大致相当于轻度发育迟缓，是种族恶化的迹象。
Years later, experts agreed that the results misrepresented the levels of education for the recruits and revealed defects in the design of the tests.
多年后，专家们一致认为，结果歪曲了新兵的教育水平，并暴露了测试设计的缺陷。
The experience of service in the army expanded many individual social horizons as native-born and foreign-born soldiers served together.
当本土出生和外国出生的士兵一起服役时，在军队服役的经历扩大了许多个人的社会视野。
Immigrants had been welcomed into Union ranks during the Civil War, including large numbers of Irish and Germans who had joined and fought alongside native-born men.
内战期间，移民受到联邦军队的欢迎，其中包括大量爱尔兰人和德国人，他们加入了本土出生的男子并与他们并肩作战。
Some Germans in the Civil War fought in units where German was the main language.
内战中的一些德国人在以德语为主要语言的部队中作战。
Between 1917 and 1918, the army accepted immigrants with some hesitancy because of the widespread public agitation against “hyphenated Americans.” Others were segregated.
1917 年至 1918 年间，由于公众普遍反对“带连字符的美国人”，军队在接受移民时有些犹豫。其他人则被隔离。
Propagandistic images increased patriotism in a public relatively detached from events taking place overseas.
宣传图像增强了与海外发生的事件相对无关的公众的爱国主义情绪。
This photograph, showing two United States soldiers sprinting past the bodies of two German soldiers toward a bunker, showed Americans the heroism evinced by their men in uniform.
这张照片显示，两名美国士兵冲过两名德国士兵的尸体，冲向一个掩体，向美国人展示了他们身穿制服的士兵所表现出的英雄气概。
Likely a staged image was taken after the fighting ended, it nonetheless played on the public’s patriotism, telling them to step up and support the troops.
这张照片很可能是在战斗结束后拍摄的，但它仍然发挥了公众的爱国主义精神，告诉他们站出来支持军队。
“At close grips with the Hun, we bomb the corkshaffer’s, etc.,” c.
“在与匈奴的密切联系中，我们轰炸了开瓶器等，”c。
1922?.
1922年？
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/91783839/.
Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/91783839/.
Prevailing racial attitudes among white Americans mandated the assignment of white and Black soldiers to different units.
Prevailing racial attitudes among white Americans mandated the assignment of white and Black soldiers to different units.
Despite racial discrimination, many Black American leaders, such as W.
Despite racial discrimination, many Black American leaders, such as W.
E.
E.
B.
B.
Du Bois, supported the war effort and sought a place at the front for Black soldiers.
Du Bois, supported the war effort and sought a place at the front for Black soldiers.
Black leaders viewed military service as an opportunity to demonstrate to white society the willingness and ability of Black men to assume all duties and responsibilities of citizens, including wartime sacrifice.
黑人领袖将服兵役视为向白人社会展示黑人承担公民所有义务和责任（包括战时牺牲）的意愿和能力的机会。
If Black soldiers were drafted and fought and died on equal footing with white soldiers, then white Americans would see that they deserved full citizenship.
如果黑人士兵与白人士兵平等地应征入伍、战斗和死亡，那么美国白人就会认为他们应该获得完整的公民身份。
The War Department, however, barred Black troops from combat and relegated Black soldiers to segregated service units where they worked as general laborers.
然而，陆军部禁止黑人军队参加战斗，并将黑人士兵转移到隔离的服务单位，在那里他们充当普通劳工。
The army also often restricted the privileges of Black soldiers to ensure that the conditions they encountered in Europe did not lead them to question their place in American society.
军队还经常限制黑人士兵的特权，以确保他们在欧洲遇到的条件不会导致他们质疑自己在美国社会的地位。
In France, however, the experiences of Black soldiers during training and periods of leave, coupled with their service, proved transformative.
In France, however, the experiences of Black soldiers during training and periods of leave, coupled with their service, proved transformative.
The U.S. government exercised significant social control over its overseas soldiers.
The U.S. government exercised significant social control over its overseas soldiers.
To ensure that American “doughboys” did not succumb to European vices, several religious and progressive organizations created an extensive program designed to keep the men pure of heart, mind, and body.
为了确保美国的“硬汉”不屈服于欧洲的恶习，一些宗教和进步组织制定了一项广泛的计划，旨在保持人们的心灵、思想和身体纯洁。
With assistance from the Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) and other temperance organizations, the War Department put together a program of schools, sightseeing tours, and recreational facilities to provide wholesome and educational outlets.
在基督教青年会 (YMCA) 和其他禁酒组织的协助下，陆军部制定了一系列学校、观光旅游和娱乐设施计划，以提供健康和教育的场所。
The soldiers welcomed most of the activities from these groups, but many still managed to find and enjoy the traditional recreations of soldiers at war.
士兵们对这些团体的大部分活动表示欢迎，但许多人仍然设法找到并享受战争士兵的传统娱乐活动。
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Women reacted to the war preparations by joining several military and civilian organizations.
妇女通过加入一些军事和民间组织来应对战争准备。
Their enrollment and actions in these organizations proved to be a pioneering effort for American women in war.
事实证明，她们在这些组织中的加入和行动是美国战争妇女的开创性努力。
Military leaders authorized the permanent gender transition of several occupations that gave women opportunities to don uniforms where none had existed before in history.
军事领导人批准了一些职业的永久性性别转变，让女性有机会穿上历史上从未有过的制服。
Civilian wartime organizations, although chaired by male members of the business elite, boasted all-female volunteer workforces.
民间战时组织虽然由商界精英的男性成员担任主席，但其志愿者队伍全部为女性。
Women performed the bulk of volunteer work during the war.
战争期间，妇女承担了大部分志愿工作。
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The admittance of women brought considerable upheaval.
女性的加入带来了相当大的动荡。
The War and Navy Departments authorized the enlistment of women to fill positions in several established administrative occupations.
战争部和海军部授权征募女性担任若干既定行政职位的职位。
The gendered transition of these jobs freed more men to join combat units.
这些工作的性别转变让更多的男性得以加入战斗部队。
Army women served as telephone operators (Hello Girls) for the Signal Corps, navy women enlisted as yeomen (clerical workers), and the first groups of women joined the Marine Corps in July 1918.
陆军女性担任通信兵的电话接线员（Hello Girls），海军女性入伍担任自耕农（文职人员），第一批女性于 1918 年 7 月加入海军陆战队。
Approximately twenty-five thousand nurses served in the Army and Navy Nurse Corps for duty stateside and overseas, and about a hundred female physicians were contracted by the army.
大约有两万五千名护士在陆军和海军护士团服役，在国内外执勤，大约一百名女医生与军队签约。
Neither the female nurses nor the doctors served as commissioned officers in the military, leaving the status of professional medical women hovering somewhere between the enlisted and officer ranks.
女护士和女医生都没有在军队中担任军官，这使得职业女医务人员的地位徘徊在士兵和军官之间。
As a result, many female nurses and doctors suffered various physical and mental abuses at the hands of their male coworkers with no system of redress in place.
结果，许多女护士和医生遭受男同事的各种身体和精神虐待，却没有任何补救制度。
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Millions of women also volunteered in civilian organizations such as the American Red Cross, the Young Men’s and Women’s Christian Associations (YMCA/YWCA), and the Salvation Army.
数百万妇女还在美国红十字会、基督教青年会 (YMCA/YWCA) 和救世军等民间组织中担任志愿者。
Most women performed their volunteer duties in communal spaces owned by the leaders of the municipal chapters of these organizations.
大多数妇女在这些组织市政分会领导人拥有的公共空间中履行志愿者职责。
Women met at designated times to roll bandages, prepare and serve meals and snacks, package and ship supplies, and organize community fund-raisers.
妇女们在指定时间聚会，卷绷带、准备和提供膳食和小吃、包装和运送物资，以及组织社区筹款活动。
The variety of volunteer opportunities gave women the ability to appear in public spaces and promote charitable activities for the war effort.
各种各样的志愿者机会使妇女能够出现在公共场所并促进战争慈善活动。
Female volunteers encouraged entire communities, including children, to get involved in war work.
女性志愿者鼓励包括儿童在内的整个社区参与战争工作。
While most of these efforts focused on support for the home front, a small percentage of female volunteers served with the American Expeditionary Force in France.
虽然这些努力大部分集中在支持后方，但也有一小部分女性志愿者在法国的美国远征军服役。
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Jim Crow segregation in both the military and the civilian sector stood as a barrier for Black women who wanted to give their time to the war effort.
军队和民事部门的吉姆·克劳种族隔离对那些想把时间投入战争的黑人妇女来说是一个障碍。
The military prohibited Black women from serving as enlisted or appointed medical personnel.
军方禁止黑人妇女担任入伍或任命的医务人员。
The only avenue for Black women to wear a military uniform existed with the armies of the allied nations.
黑人妇女穿军装的唯一途径是在盟国的军队中。
A few Black female doctors and nurses joined the French Foreign Legion to escape the racism in the American army.
一些黑人女医生和护士加入了法国外籍军团，以逃避美国军队的种族主义。
Black female volunteers faced the same discrimination in civilian wartime organizations.
黑人女性志愿者在民间战时组织中也面临着同样的歧视。
White leaders of the American Red Cross, YMCA/YWCA, and Salvation Army municipal chapters refused to admit Black women as equal participants.
美国红十字会、基督教青年会/基督教青年会和救世军市政分会的白人领导人拒绝承认黑人妇女作为平等参与者。
Black women were forced to charter auxiliary units as subsidiary divisions and were given little guidance on organizing volunteers.
黑人妇女被迫将辅助单位特许为附属部门，并且在组织志愿者方面几乎没有得到任何指导。
They turned instead to the community for support and recruited millions of women for auxiliaries that supported the nearly two hundred thousand Black soldiers and sailors serving in the military.
相反，他们向社区寻求支持，并招募了数百万妇女作为辅助人员，为在军队服役的近二十万名黑人士兵和水手提供支持。
While most female volunteers labored to care for Black families on the home front, three YMCA secretaries worked with the Black troops in France.
虽然大多数女性志愿者在后方努力照顾黑人家庭，但基督教青年会的三名秘书却在法国与黑人军队一起工作。
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In the early years of the war, Americans were generally detached from the events in Europe.
战争初期，美国人普遍对欧洲发生的事件漠不关心。
Progressive Era reform politics dominated the political landscape, and Americans remained most concerned with the shifting role of government at home.
进步时代的改革政治主导着政治格局，美国人仍然最关心的是国内政府角色的转变。
However, the facts of the war could not be ignored by the public.
然而，战争的事实却不能被公众忽视。
The destruction taking place on European battlefields and the ensuing casualty rates exposed the unprecedented brutality of modern warfare.
欧洲战场上发生的破坏和随之而来的伤亡率暴露了现代战争前所未有的残酷性。
Increasingly, a sense that the fate of the Western world lay in the victory or defeat of the Allies took hold in the United States.
美国越来越感觉到西方世界的命运取决于同盟国的胜利或失败。
President Wilson, a committed progressive, articulated a global vision of democracy even as he embraced neutrality.
威尔逊总统是一位坚定的进步主义者，尽管他拥护中立，但他阐明了民主的全球愿景。
As war engulfed Europe, it seemed apparent that the United States’ economic power would shape the outcome of the conflict regardless of any American military intervention.
随着战争席卷欧洲，无论美国如何进行军事干预，美国的经济实力似乎都将决定冲突的结果。
By 1916, American trade with the Allies tripled, while trade with the Central Powers shrank to less than 1 percent of previous levels.
到 1916 年，美国与同盟国的贸易额增加了两倍，而与同盟国的贸易额则缩减至之前水平的不到 1%。
A membership card for the American Protective League, issued May 28, 1918.
美国保护联盟会员卡，1918 年 5 月 28 日发行。
German immigrants in the United States aroused popular suspicions during World War I and the American Protective League (APL), a group of private citizens, worked directly with the U.S. government to identify suspected German sympathizers and to eradicate all antiwar and politically radical activities through surveillance, public shaming, and government raids.
第一次世界大战期间，在美国的德国移民引起了民众的怀疑，美国保护联盟（APL）这个由普通公民组成的组织直接与美国政府合作，查明可疑的德国同情者，并通过监视、公开羞辱和政府突击搜查来根除所有反战和政治激进活动。
J.
J。
Edgar Hoover, the head of the Bureau of Investigation (later the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI), used the APL to gather intelligence.
调查局（后来的联邦调查局，FBI）局长埃德加·胡佛 (Edgar Hoover) 使用 APL 收集情报。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
The progression of the war in Europe generated fierce national debates about military preparedness.
欧洲战争的进展引发了有关军事准备的激烈全国性辩论。
The Allies and the Central Powers had quickly raised and mobilized vast armies and navies.
同盟国和同盟国迅速集结并动员了庞大的陆军和海军。
The United States still had a small military.
美国的军队规模仍然很小。
When America entered the war, the mobilization of military resources and the cultivation of popular support consumed the country, generating enormous publicity and propaganda campaigns.
当美国参战时，军事资源的调动和民众支持的培养消耗了整个国家，引发了大规模的宣传和宣传活动。
President Wilson created the Committee on Public Information, known as the Creel Committee, headed by Progressive George Creel, to inspire patriotism and generate support for military adventures.
威尔逊总统创建了公共信息委员会，即克里尔委员会，由进步派乔治·克里尔领导，旨在激发爱国主义并为军事冒险提供支持。
Creel enlisted the help of Hollywood studios and other budding media outlets to cultivate a view of the war that pitted democracy against imperialism and framed America as a crusading nation rescuing Western civilization from medievalism and militarism.
克里尔在好莱坞电影公司和其他新兴媒体的帮助下，培养了一种民主对抗帝国主义的战争观，并将美国描绘成一个将西方文明从中世纪主义和军国主义手中拯救出来的十字军国家。
As war passions flared, challenges to the onrushing patriotic sentiment that America was making the world “safe for democracy” were considered disloyal.
随着战争热情的高涨，对美国正在让世界成为“民主安全”的高涨爱国情绪的挑战被认为是不忠诚的。
Wilson signed the Espionage Act in 1917 and the Sedition Act in 1918, stripping dissenters and protesters of their rights to publicly resist the war.
威尔逊于1917年签署了《间谍法》，并于1918年签署了《煽动叛乱法》，剥夺了持不同政见者和抗议者公开抵制战争的权利。
Critics and protesters were imprisoned.
批评者和抗议者被监禁。
Immigrants, labor unions, and political radicals became targets of government investigations and an ever more hostile public culture.
移民、工会和政治激进分子成为政府调查的目标，公共文化也变得更加敌对。
Meanwhile, the government insisted that individual financial contributions made a discernible difference for the men on the Western Front.
与此同时，政府坚称，个人的财政贡献对西线的士兵产生了明显的影响。
Americans lent their financial support to the war effort by purchasing war bonds or supporting the Liberty Loan Drive.
美国人通过购买战争债券或支持自由贷款活动来为战争提供财政支持。
Many Americans, however, sacrificed much more than money.
然而，许多美国人牺牲的不仅仅是金钱。
15
15
European powers struggled to adapt to the brutality of modern war.
欧洲列强努力适应现代战争的残酷性。
Until the spring of 1917, the Allies possessed few effective defensive measures against submarine attacks.
直到 1917 年春天，盟军几乎没有针对潜艇攻击的有效防御措施。
German submarines sank more than a thousand ships by the time the United States entered the war.
当美国参战时，德国潜艇击沉了一千多艘船只。
The rapid addition of American naval escorts to the British surface fleet and the establishment of a convoy system countered much of the effect of German submarines.
美国海军护航舰艇迅速加入英国水面舰队并建立了护航系统，在很大程度上抵消了德国潜艇的影响。
Shipping and military losses declined rapidly, just as the American army arrived in Europe in large numbers.
随着美国军队大批抵达欧洲，航运和军事损失迅速下降。
Although much of the equipment still needed to make the transatlantic passage, the physical presence of the army proved a fatal blow to German war plans.
尽管跨大西洋航行仍需要大量装备，但军队的实际存在对德国的战争计划造成了致命打击。
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16
In July 1917, after one last disastrous offensive against the Germans, the Russian army disintegrated.
1917 年 7 月，在对德国人进行最后一次灾难性进攻后，俄罗斯军队瓦解了。
The tsarist regime collapsed and in November 1917 Vladimir Lenin’s Bolshevik party came to power.
沙皇政权垮台，弗拉基米尔·列宁领导的布尔什维克党于 1917 年 11 月上台。
Russia soon surrendered to German demands and exited the war, freeing Germany to finally fight the one-front war it had desired since 1914.
俄罗斯很快就屈服于德国的要求并退出了战争，使德国最终得以自由地打一场它自 1914 年以来一直渴望的单线战争。
The German military quickly shifted hundreds of thousands of soldiers from the eastern theater in preparation for a new series of offensives planned for the following year in France.
德国军方迅速从东部战区转移了数十万士兵，为计划于明年在法国发动的一系列新攻势做准备。
17
17 号
In March 1918, Germany launched the Kaiserschlacht (Spring Offensive), a series of five major attacks.
1918 年 3 月，德国发动了 Kaiserschlacht（春季攻势），这是一系列五次大规模进攻。
By the middle of July 1918, each and every one had failed to break through the Western Front.
到 1918 年 7 月中旬，所有部队都未能突破西线。
On August 8, 1918, two million men of the American Expeditionary Forces joined British and French armies in a series of successful counteroffensives that pushed the disintegrating German lines back across France.
1918 年 8 月 8 日，200 万美国远征军与英国和法国军队一起发动了一系列成功的反攻，将瓦解的德国防线推回了法国。
German general Erich Ludendorff referred to the launch of the counteroffensive as the “black day of the German army.” The German offensive gamble exhausted Germany’s faltering military effort.
德国将军埃里希·鲁登道夫将这次反攻称为“德军的黑色一天”。德国的进攻赌博耗尽了德国摇摇欲坠的军事努力。
Defeat was inevitable.
失败是不可避免的。
Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated at the request of the German military leaders and the new democratic government agreed to an armistice (cease-fire) on November 11, 1918.
德皇威廉二世应德国军事领导人的要求退位，新民主政府于 1918 年 11 月 11 日同意停战（停火）。
German military forces withdrew from France and Belgium and returned to a Germany teetering on the brink of chaos.
德国军队从法国和比利时撤出，回到了陷入混乱边缘的德国。
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18
By the end of the war, more than 4.7 million American men had served in all branches of the military: four million in the army, six hundred thousand in the navy, and about eighty thousand in the Marine Corps.
到战争结束时，超过 470 万美国人在军队的各个部门服役：其中 400 万在陆军，60 万在海军，大约 8 万在海军陆战队。
The United States lost over one hundred thousand men (fifty-three thousand died in battle, and even more from disease).
美国损失了超过十万人（五万三千人死于战斗，更多人死于疾病）。
Their terrible sacrifice, however, paled before the Europeans’.
然而，他们的可怕牺牲在欧洲人面前显得黯然失色。
After four years of brutal stalemate, France had suffered almost a million and a half military dead and Germany even more.
经过四年的残酷僵局，法国有近百万军人死亡，德国死亡人数更多。
Both nations lost about 4 percent of their population to the war.
两国在战争中损失了约 4% 的人口。
And death was not done.
死亡还没有结束。
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Even as war raged on the Western Front, a new deadly threat loomed: influenza.
就在西线战事如火如荼之际，一种新的致命威胁迫在眉睫：流感。
In the spring of 1918, a strain of the flu virus appeared in the farm country of Haskell County, Kansas, and hit nearby Camp Funston, one of the largest army training camps in the nation.
1918 年春天，一种流感病毒出现在堪萨斯州哈斯克尔县的农场，并袭击了附近的芬斯顿营（美国最大的陆军训练营之一）。
The virus spread like wildfire.
病毒像野火一样蔓延。
The camp had brought disparate populations together, shuffled them between bases, sent them back to their homes across the nation, and, in consecutive waves, deployed them around the world.
该营地将不同的人口聚集在一起，将他们转移到基地之间，将他们送回全国各地的家园，然后一波又一波地将他们部署到世界各地。
Between March and May 1918, fourteen of the largest American military training camps reported outbreaks of influenza.
1918 年 3 月至 5 月期间，美国最大的 14 个军事训练营报告爆发了流感。
Some of the infected soldiers carried the virus on troop transports to France.
一些受感染的士兵在前往法国的运兵途中携带病毒。
By September 1918, influenza spread to all training camps in the United States.
到 1918 年 9 月，流感蔓延到美国所有训练营。
And then it mutated.
然后它突变了。
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The second wave of the virus, a mutated strain, was even deadlier than the first.
第二波病毒是一种突变株，比第一波更加致命。
It struck down those in the prime of their lives: a disproportionate amount of influenza victims were between ages eighteen and thirty-five.
它袭击了那些正值青春年华的人：流感受害者的年龄在十八岁到三十五岁之间，比例不成比例。
In Europe, influenza hit both sides of the Western Front.
在欧洲，流感袭击了西线两侧。
The “Spanish Influenza,” or the “Spanish Lady,” misnamed due to accounts of the disease that first appeared in the uncensored newspapers of neutral Spain, resulted in the deaths of an estimated fifty million people worldwide.
“西班牙流感”或“西班牙女士”由于首次出现在中立的西班牙未经审查的报纸上而被错误命名，导致全世界估计有 5000 万人死亡。
Reports from the Surgeon General of the Army revealed that while 227,000 American soldiers were hospitalized from wounds received in battle, almost half a million suffered from influenza.
陆军军医长的报告显示，虽然有 227,000 名美国士兵因战斗受伤住院治疗，但近 50 万人患有流感。
The worst part of the epidemic struck during the height of the Meuse-Argonne Offensive in the fall of 1918 and weakened the combat capabilities of the American and German armies.
这场疫情最严重的时期发生在 1918 年秋季默兹-阿贡攻势最激烈的时期，削弱了美国和德国军队的作战能力。
During the war, more soldiers died from influenza than combat.
战争期间，死于流感的士兵比死于战斗的士兵还要多。
The pandemic continued to spread after the armistice before finally fading in the early 1920s.
停战后，疫情继续蔓延，最终在 20 年代初消退。
No cure was ever found.
一直没有找到治疗方法。
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As the flu virus wracked the world, Europe and America rejoiced at the end of hostilities.
当流感病毒席卷全球时，欧洲和美国为敌对行动的结束而欢欣鼓舞。
On December 4, 1918, President Wilson became the first American president to travel overseas during his term.
1918年12月4日，威尔逊总统成为第一位在任期内出国访问的美国总统。
He intended to shape the peace.
他打算塑造和平。
The war brought an abrupt end to four great European imperial powers.
这场战争使欧洲四大帝国强国戛然而止。
The German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires evaporated, and the map of Europe was redrawn to accommodate new independent nations.
德国、俄罗斯、奥匈帝国和奥斯曼帝国消失了，欧洲地图被重新绘制以容纳新的独立国家。
As part of the armistice, Allied forces followed the retreating Germans and occupied territories in the Rhineland to prevent Germany from reigniting war.
作为停战协定的一部分，盟军跟踪撤退的德国人并占领莱茵兰地区，以防止德国重新爆发战争。
As Germany disarmed, Wilson and the other Allied leaders gathered in France at Versailles for the Paris Peace Conference to dictate the terms of a settlement to the war.
德国解除武装后，威尔逊和其他盟军领导人齐聚法国凡尔赛宫，参加巴黎和会，制定解决战争的条款。
After months of deliberation, the Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war.
经过数月的审议，《凡尔赛条约》正式结束了战争。
Earlier that year, on January 8, 1918, before a joint session of Congress, President Wilson offered an ambitious statement of war aims and peace terms known as the Fourteen Points.
同年早些时候，即 1918 年 1 月 8 日，在国会联席会议之前，威尔逊总统提出了一份雄心勃勃的战争目标和和平条款声明，即“十四点”。
The plan not only dealt with territorial issues but offered principles on which a long-term peace could be built.
该计划不仅涉及领土问题，还提出了建立长期和平的原则。
But in January 1918, Germany still anticipated a favorable verdict on the battlefield and did not seriously consider accepting the terms of the Fourteen Points.
但1918年1月，德国仍期待战场上的有利判决，并没有认真考虑接受“十四点”条款。
The Allies were even more dismissive.
同盟国更是不屑一顾。
French prime minister Georges Clemenceau remarked, “The good Lord only had ten [points].” 22
法国总理乔治·克列孟梭 (Georges Clemenceau) 评论道：“仁慈的上帝只给了十点。” 22
President Wilson labored to realize his vision of the postwar world.
威尔逊总统努力实现他对战后世界的愿景。
The United States had entered the fray, Wilson proclaimed, “to make the world safe for democracy.” At the center of the plan was a novel international organization—the League of Nations—charged with keeping a worldwide peace by preventing the kind of destruction that tore across Europe and “affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” This promise of collective security, that an attack on one sovereign member would be viewed as an attack on all, was a key component of the Fourteen Points.
威尔逊宣称，美国加入这场战争是为了“让世界对民主更加安全”。该计划的核心是一个新颖的国际组织——国际联盟——负责通过防止席卷欧洲的那种破坏来维护世界和平，并“为大小国家提供政治独立和领土完整的相互保证”。这种集体安全的承诺，即对一个主权成员的攻击将被视为对所有主权成员的攻击，是“十四点”的关键组成部分。
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But the fight for peace was daunting.
但争取和平的斗争却令人畏惧。
While President Wilson was celebrated in Europe and welcomed as the “God of Peace,” his fellow statesmen were less enthusiastic about his plans for postwar Europe.
尽管威尔逊总统在欧洲受到赞誉并被誉为“和平之神”，但他的政治家们对他的战后欧洲计划却不太热心。
America’s closest allies had little interest in the League of Nations.
美国最亲密的盟友对国际联盟没有什么兴趣。
Allied leaders sought to guarantee the future safety of their own nations.
盟军领导人力求保证本国未来的安全。
Unlike the United States, the Allies endured the horrors of the war firsthand.
与美国不同，盟国亲身经历了战争的恐怖。
They refused to sacrifice further.
他们拒绝进一步牺牲。
The negotiations made clear that British prime minister David Lloyd-George was more interested in preserving Britain’s imperial domain, while French prime minister Clemenceau sought a peace that recognized the Allies’ victory and the Central Powers’ culpability: he wanted reparations—severe financial penalties—and limits on Germany’s future ability to wage war.
谈判明确表明，英国首相戴维·劳合·乔治更感兴趣的是维护英国的帝国领土，而法国首相克列孟梭则寻求承认盟军胜利和同盟国罪责的和平：他想要赔偿——严厉的经济处罚——并限制德国未来发动战争的能力。
The fight for the League of Nations was therefore largely on the shoulders of President Wilson.
因此，争取国际联盟的斗争主要落在威尔逊总统的肩上。
By June 1919, the final version of the treaty was signed and President Wilson was able to return home.
1919 年 6 月，条约的最终版本签署，威尔逊总统得以回国。
The treaty was a compromise that included demands for German reparations, provisions for the League of Nations, and the promise of collective security.
该条约是一项妥协，包括要求德国赔偿、对国际联盟的规定以及集体安全的承诺。
For President Wilson, it was an imperfect peace, but an imperfect peace was better than none at all.
对于威尔逊总统来说，这是一个不完美的和平，但不完美的和平总比没有好。
The real fight for the League of Nations was on the American home front.
国际联盟的真正战斗是在美国本土。
Republican senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts stood as the most prominent opponent of the League of Nations.
马萨诸塞州共和党参议员亨利·卡伯特·洛奇是国际联盟最突出的反对者。
As chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an influential Republican Party leader, he could block ratification of the treaty.
作为参议院外交关系委员会主席和有影响力的共和党领导人，他可以阻止该条约的批准。
Lodge attacked the treaty for potentially robbing the United States of its sovereignty.
洛奇攻击该条约可能剥夺美国的主权。
Never an isolationist, Lodge demanded instead that the country deal with its own problems in its own way, free from the collective security—and oversight—offered by the League of Nations.
洛奇从来都不是孤立主义者，相反，他要求该国以自己的方式处理自己的问题，不受国际联盟提供的集体安全和监督的影响。
Unable to match Lodge’s influence in the Senate, President Wilson took his case to the American people in the hopes that ordinary voters might be convinced that the only guarantee of future world peace was the League of Nations.
由于无法与洛奇在参议院的影响力相媲美，威尔逊总统向美国人民提出了自己的主张，希望普通选民相信，未来世界和平的唯一保证是国际联盟。
During his grueling cross-country trip, however, President Wilson suffered an incapacitating stroke.
然而，在艰苦的越野旅行中，威尔逊总统遭遇中风，致残。
His opponents had the upper hand.
他的对手占据了上风。
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President Wilson’s dream for the League of Nations died on the floor of the Senate.
威尔逊总统建立国际联盟的梦想在参议院破灭了。
Lodge’s opposition successfully blocked America’s entry into the League of Nations, an organization conceived and championed by the American president.
洛奇的反对派成功阻止了美国加入国际联盟，这是一个由美国总统构想和倡导的组织。
The League of Nations operated with fifty-eight sovereign members, but the United States refused to join, refused to lend it American power, and refused to provide it with the power needed to fulfill its purpose.
国际联盟有五十八个主权成员国，但美国拒绝加入，拒绝向其提供美国力量，并拒绝向其提供实现其目的所需的力量。
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The war transformed the world.
战争改变了世界。
The Middle East, for instance, was drastically changed.
例如，中东发生了巨大的变化。
For centuries the Ottoman Empire had shaped life in the region.
几个世纪以来，奥斯曼帝国塑造了该地区的生活。
Before the war, the Middle East had three main centers of power: the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Iran.
战前，中东拥有三个主要权力中心：奥斯曼帝国、埃及和伊朗。
President Wilson’s call for self-determination appealed to many under the Ottoman Empire’s rule.
威尔逊总统的自决呼吁吸引了奥斯曼帝国统治下的许多人。
In the aftermath of the war, Wilson sent a commission to investigate the region to determine the conditions and aspirations of the populace.
战争结束后，威尔逊派了一个委员会调查该地区，以确定民众的状况和愿望。
The King-Crane Commission found that most of the inhabitants favored an independent state free of European control.
金-克兰委员会发现，大多数居民赞成建立一个不受欧洲控制的独立国家。
However, these wishes were largely ignored, and the lands of the former Ottoman Empire were divided into mandates through the Treaty of Sèvres at the San Remo Conference in 1920.
然而，这些愿望在很大程度上被忽视了，前奥斯曼帝国的土地在 1920 年的圣雷莫会议上通过《塞夫尔条约》被划分为托管地。
The Ottoman Empire disintegrated into several nations, many created by European powers with little regard to ethnic realities.
奥斯曼帝国分裂成几个国家，其中许多国家是由欧洲列强创建的，很少考虑种族现实。
These Arab provinces were ruled by Britain and France, and the new nation of Turkey emerged from the former heartland of Anatolia.
这些阿拉伯省份由英国和法国统治，新国家土耳其从安纳托利亚的前中心地带崛起。
According to the League of Nations, mandates “were inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world.” Though allegedly for the benefit of the people of the Middle East, the mandate system was essentially a reimagined form of nineteenth-century imperialism.
根据国际联盟的说法，托管地“居住的人民在现代世界的严峻条件下尚无法自力更生”。尽管据称是为了中东人民的利益，托管制度本质上是十九世纪帝国主义的重新想象形式。
France received Syria; Britain took control of Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan (Jordan).
法国接收了叙利亚；英国控制了伊拉克、巴勒斯坦和外约旦（约旦）。
The United States was asked to become a mandate power but declined.
美国被要求成为托管国，但遭到拒绝。
The geographical realignment of the Middle East also included the formation of two new nations: the Kingdom of Hejaz and Yemen.
中东的地理调整还包括两个新国家的形成：汉志王国和也门。
(The Kingdom of Hejaz was ruled by Sharif Hussein and only lasted until the 1920s, when it became part of Saudi Arabia.) 26
（汉志王国由谢里夫·侯赛因统治，直到 1920 年代才成为沙特阿拉伯的一部分。）26
The 1917 Russian Revolution, meanwhile enflamed American fears of communism.
与此同时，1917 年的俄国革命加剧了美国对共产主义的恐惧。
The fates of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, two Italian-born anarchists who were convicted of robbery and murder in 1920 epitomized a sudden American Red Scare.
尼古拉·萨科 (Nicola Sacco) 和巴托洛梅奥·万泽蒂 (Bartolomeo Vanzetti) 这两位出生于意大利的无政府主义者于 1920 年被判犯有抢劫和谋杀罪，他们的命运集中体现了一场突然发生的美国红色恐慌。
Their arrest, trial, and execution, meanwhile, inspired many leftists and dissenting artists to express their sympathy with the accused, such as in Maxwell Anderson’s Gods of the Lightning or Upton Sinclair’s Boston .
与此同时，他们的被捕、审判和处决激发了许多左派和持不同政见的艺术家表达对被告的同情，例如麦克斯韦·安德森的《闪电之神》或厄普顿·辛克莱的《波士顿》。
The Sacco-Vanzetti case demonstrated an exacerbated nervousness about immigrants and the potential spread of radical ideas, especially those related to international communism.
萨科-万泽蒂案表明，人们对移民和激进思想（尤其是与国际共产主义有关的思想）的潜在传播更加紧张。
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27
When in March 1918 the Bolsheviks signed a separate peace treaty with Germany, the Allies planned to send troops to northern Russia and Siberia to prevent German influence and fight the Bolshevik Revolution.
1918 年 3 月，布尔什维克与德国签署了单独的和平条约，同盟国计划向俄罗斯北部和西伯利亚派遣军队，以阻止德国的影响并对抗布尔什维克革命。
Wilson agreed, and, in a little-known foreign intervention, American troops remained in Russia as late as 1920.
威尔逊同意了，并且在一次鲜为人知的外国干预中，美国军队直到 1920 年仍留在俄罗斯。
Although the Bolshevik rhetoric of self-determination followed many of the ideals of Wilson’s Fourteen Points—Vladimir Lenin supported revolutions against imperial rule across the world—the American commitment to self-rule was hardly strong enough to overcome powerful strains of anticommunism.
尽管布尔什维克的自决言论遵循了威尔逊十四点的许多理想——弗拉基米尔·列宁支持全世界反对帝国统治的革命——但美国对自治的承诺还不足以克服强大的反共主义压力。
With America still at war in World War I, President Wilson sent American troops to Siberia during the Russian civil war to oppose the Bolsheviks.
由于美国在第一次世界大战中仍处于战争状态，威尔逊总统在俄罗斯内战期间派遣美国军队前往西伯利亚反对布尔什维克。
This August 1918 photograph shows American soldiers in Vladivostok parading before the building occupied by the staff of the Czecho-Slovaks.
这张 1918 年 8 月的照片拍摄的是符拉迪沃斯托克的美国士兵在捷克斯洛伐克参谋部占据的大楼前检阅。
To the left, Japanese marines stand to attention as the American troops march.
在左边，日本海军陆战队在美军行进时立正。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
At home, the United States grappled with harsh postwar realities.
在国内，美国正在努力应对战后的严峻现实。
Racial tensions culminated in the Red Summer of 1919 when violence broke out in at least twenty-five cities, including Chicago and Washington, D.C. The riots originated from wartime racial tensions.
种族紧张局势在 1919 年的“红色之夏”达到顶峰，包括芝加哥和华盛顿特区在内的至少 25 个城市爆发了暴力事件。骚乱源于战时的种族紧张局势。
Industrial war production and massive wartime service created vast labor shortages, and thousands of Black southerners traveled to the North and Midwest to escape the traps of southern poverty.
工业战争生产和大规模的战时服务造成了巨大的劳动力短缺，成千上万的南方黑人前往北部和中西部逃离南方贫困的陷阱。
But the so-called Great Migration sparked significant racial conflict as white northerners and returning veterans fought to reclaim their jobs and their neighborhoods from new Black migrants.
但所谓的大移民引发了严重的种族冲突，北方白人和回国退伍军人奋力从新黑人移民手中夺回工作和社区。
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28
Many Black Americans, who had fled the Jim Crow South and traveled halfway around the world to fight for the United States, would not so easily accept postwar racism.
许多逃离种族隔离南方并穿越半个地球为美国而战的美国黑人不会轻易接受战后的种族主义。
The overseas experience of Black Americans and their return triggered a dramatic change in Black communities.
美国黑人的海外经历及其回归引发了黑人社区的巨大变化。
W.
W.
E.
E.
B.
B.
Du Bois wrote boldly of returning soldiers: “We return.
杜波依斯在谈到归来的士兵时大胆地写道：“我们回来了。
We return from fighting.
我们从战斗中回来。
We return fighting.
我们战斗归来。
Make way for Democracy!” 29 But white Americans desired a return to the status quo, a world that did not include social, political, or economic equality for Black people.
为民主让路！” 29 但美国白人希望回到现状，一个黑人在社会、政治或经济上不平等的世界。
In 1919, America suffered through the “Red Summer.” Riots erupted across the country from April until October.
1919年，美国经历了“红色夏天”。从四月到十月，全国各地爆发了骚乱。
The massive bloodshed included thousands of injuries, hundreds of deaths, and vast destruction of private and public property across the nation.
大规模流血事件造成全国数千人受伤、数百人死亡，私人和公共财产遭到大规模破坏。
The Chicago Riot, from July 27 to August 3, 1919, considered the summer’s worst, sparked a week of mob violence, murder, and arson.
1919 年 7 月 27 日至 8 月 3 日的芝加哥骚乱被认为是夏季最严重的骚乱，引发了一周的暴徒暴力、谋杀和纵火。
Race riots had rocked the nation before, but the Red Summer was something new.
种族骚乱以前曾震动过全国，但“红色夏天”却是新鲜事。
Recently empowered Black Americans actively defended their families and homes from hostile white rioters, often with militant force.
最近获得权力的美国黑人积极保卫自己的家人和家园，免受敌对的白人骚乱者的侵害，通常使用武装力量。
This behavior galvanized many in Black communities, but it also shocked white Americans who alternatively interpreted Black resistance as a desire for total revolution or as a new positive step in the path toward Black civil rights.
这种行为激起了黑人社区中的许多人的兴趣，但也震惊了美国白人，他们要么将黑人的抵抗解释为彻底革命的愿望，要么将其视为迈向黑人民权道路上的新的积极一步。
In the riots’ aftermath, James Weldon Johnson wrote, “Can’t they understand that the more Negroes they outrage, the more determined the whole race becomes to secure the full rights and privileges of freemen?” Those six hot months in 1919 forever altered American society and roused and terrified those that experienced the sudden and devastating outbreaks of violence.
骚乱发生后，詹姆斯·韦尔登·约翰逊写道：“他们难道不明白，他们激怒的黑人越多，整个种族就越坚定地确保自由人的全部权利和特权吗？” 1919 年炎热的六个月永远改变了美国社会，让那些经历过突然爆发的毁灭性暴力的人们感到兴奋和恐惧。
30
30
World War I decimated millions and profoundly altered the course of world history.
第一次世界大战造成数百万人死亡，并深刻改变了世界历史的进程。
Postwar instabilities led directly toward a global depression and a second world war.
战后的不稳定直接导致了全球萧条和第二次世界大战。
The war sparked the Bolshevik Revolution, which led to the Soviet Union and later the Cold War.
这场战争引发了布尔什维克革命，导致了苏联和后来的冷战。
It created Middle Eastern nations and aggravated ethnic tensions that the United States could never overcome.
它创造了中东国家并加剧了美国永远无法克服的种族紧张局势。
And the United States had fought on the European mainland as a major power.
而美国则作为一个大国在欧洲大陆上作战。
America’s place in the world was never the same.
美国在世界上的地位从未改变过。
By whipping up nationalist passions, American attitudes toward radicalism, dissent, and immigration were poisoned.
通过煽动民族主义热情，美国人对激进主义、异议和移民的态度受到毒害。
Postwar disillusionment shattered Americans’ hopes for the progress of the modern world.
战后的幻灭粉碎了美国人对现代世界进步的希望。
The war came and went, leaving in its place the bloody wreckage of an old world through which the United States traveled to a new and uncertain future.
战争来了又去，取而代之的是旧世界的血腥残骸，美国通过它走向了一个新的、不确定的未来。
In this speech before Congress, President Woodrow Wilson made the case for America’s entry into World War I.
在国会演讲中，伍德罗·威尔逊总统阐述了美国加入第一次世界大战的理由。
The poet Alan Seeger, born in New York and educated at Harvard University, lived among artists and poets in Greenwich Village, New York and Paris, France.
诗人艾伦·西格出生于纽约，就读于哈佛大学，与纽约格林威治村和法国巴黎的艺术家和诗人一起生活。
When the Great War engulfed Europe, and before the United State entered the fighting, Seeger joined the French Foreign Legion.
当第一次世界大战席卷欧洲时，在美国参战之前，西格加入了法国外籍军团。
He would be killed at the Battle of the Somme in 1916.
1916年，他在索姆河战役中阵亡。
His wartime experiences would anticipate those of his countrymen, a million of whom would be deployed to France.
他的战时经历将预示他的同胞的经历，其中一百万人将被部署到法国。
Seeger’s writings were published posthumously.
西格的著作在死后出版。
The first selection is excerpted from a letter Seeger wrote to the New York Sun in 1914; the second is from his collection of poems, published in 1916.
第一个选集摘自西格 1914 年写给《纽约太阳报》的一封信；第二本来自他 1916 年出版的诗集。
Passed by Congress in May 1918 and signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson, the Sedition Act of 1918 amended the Espionage Act of 1917 to include greater limitations on war-time dissent.
1918 年《煽动叛乱法》于 1918 年 5 月由国会通过，并由伍德罗·威尔逊总统签署成为法律，它修订了 1917 年《间谍法》，对战时异议进行了更大的限制。
The Anarchist Emma Goldman was tried for conspiring to violate the Selective Service Act.
无政府主义者艾玛·戈德曼因密谋违反《兵役法》而受到审判。
The following is an excerpt from her speech to the court, in which she explains her views on patriotism.
以下是她在法庭上的演讲摘录，她在其中阐述了她对爱国主义的看法。
In the aftermath of World War I, W.E.B.
第一次世界大战结束后，W.E.B.
DuBois urged returning soldiers to continue fighting for democracy at home.
杜波依斯敦促回国的士兵继续为国内的民主而战。
Lutiant Van Wert, a Native American woman, volunteered as a nurse in Washington D.C. during the 1918 influenza pandemic.
Lutiant Van Wert 是一位美洲原住民妇女，1918 年流感大流行期间在华盛顿特区志愿担任护士。
Here, she writes to a former classmate still enrolled at the Haskell Institute, a government-run boarding school for Native American students in Kansas, and describes her work as a nurse.
在这里，她写信给仍在哈斯克尔学院就读的前同学，哈斯克尔学院是堪萨斯州一所为美国原住民学生开设的公立寄宿学校，并描述了她作为一名护士的工作。
During World War I, Woodrow Wilson set forth a vision for a new global future of democratic self-determination.
第一次世界大战期间，伍德罗·威尔逊提出了民主自决的全球新未来的愿景。
The United States had controlled the Philippines since the Spanish-American War.
自美西战争以来，美国一直控制着菲律宾。
After World War I, the U.S. legislature held joint hearings on a possible Philippine independence.
第一次世界大战后，美国立法机构就菲律宾可能独立举行了联合听证会。
Manuel Quezon came to Washington as part of a delegation to make the following case for Filipino independence.
曼努埃尔·奎松作为代表团成员来到华盛顿，为菲律宾独立提出以下理由。
It would be fifteen years until the United States acted and, in 1935, Manuel Quezon became the first president of the Philippines.
十五年后，美国才采取行动，1935 年，曼努埃尔·奎松 (Manuel Quezon) 成为菲律宾第一任总统。
In this 1917 photograph, The Boy Scouts of America charge up Fifth Avenue in New York City in a “Wake Up, America” parade to support recruitment efforts.
在这张 1917 年的照片中，美国童子军在纽约市第五大道举行“美国醒来”游行，以支持招募工作。
Nearly 60,000 people attended this single parade.
近6万人参加了这一次游行。
In this war poster, Uncle Sam points his finger at the viewer and says, “I want you for U.S. Army.” The poster was printed with a blank space to attach the address of the “nearest recruiting station.” Click on the image to view the full poster.
在这张战争海报中，山姆大叔用手指着观众说：“我希望你加入美国陆军。”海报上留有空白，附上“最近的招募站”的地址。单击图像可查看完整的海报。
This chapter was edited by Paula Fortier, with content contributions by Tizoc Chavez, Zachary W.
本章由 Paula Fortier 编辑，内容由 Tizoc Chavez、Zachary W.
Dresser, Blake Earle, Morgan Deane, Paula Fortier, Larry A.
德莱瑟、布莱克·厄尔、摩根·迪恩、宝拉·福提尔、拉里·A·
Grant, Mariah Hepworth, Jun Suk Hyun, and Leah Richier.
格兰特、玛丽亚·赫普沃斯、全锡贤和利亚·里奇尔。
Recommended citation: Tizoc Chavez et al., “World War I and Its Aftermath,” Paula Fortier, ed., in The American Yawp , eds.
推荐引用：Tizoc Chavez 等人，“第一次世界大战及其后果”，Paula Fortier 编辑，载于 The American Yawp 编辑。
Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
约瑟夫·洛克和本·赖特（加利福尼亚州斯坦福：斯坦福大学出版社，2018 年）。