The American Yawp
Edward S.
爱德华·S。
Curtis, Navajo Riders in Canyon de Chelly , c1904.
柯蒂斯，谢伊峡谷的纳瓦霍骑手，约 1904 年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
* NOTE: You are viewing a chapter from the archived, “First Edition” version of the American Yawp, which stopped receiving updates in spring 2026.
* 注意：您正在查看《American Yawp》存档的“第一版”版本中的章节，该版本已于 2026 年春季停止接收更新。
Click here to access the current, updated edition *
单击此处访问当前的更新版本*
Native Americans long dominated the vastness of the American West.
美洲原住民长期统治着广阔的美国西部。
Linked culturally and geographically by trade, travel, and warfare, various Indigenous groups controlled most of the continent west of the Mississippi River deep into the nineteenth century.
在文化和地理上通过贸易、旅行和战争联系在一起，各个土著群体在十九世纪控制着密西西比河以西的大部分大陆。
Spanish, French, British, and later American traders had integrated themselves into many regional economies, and American emigrants pushed ever westward, but no imperial power had yet achieved anything approximating political or military control over the great bulk of the continent.
西班牙、法国、英国以及后来的美国商人已经融入了许多地区经济，美国移民不断向西推进，但还没有一个帝国势力对非洲大陆的大部分地区实现任何接近政治或军事的控制。
But then the Civil War came and went and decoupled the West from the question of slavery just as the United States industrialized and laid down rails and pushed its ever-expanding population ever farther west.
但随后，内战来了又去，使西方与奴隶制问题脱钩，就像美国工业化、铺设铁路并将其不断增长的人口推向更远的西部一样。
Indigenous Americans have lived in North America for over ten millennia and, into the late nineteenth century, perhaps as many as 250,000 Native people still inhabited the American West.
美国原住民在北美生活了十多年，到十九世纪末，也许有多达 25 万原住民仍然居住在美国西部。
1 But then unending waves of American settlers, the American military, and the unstoppable onrush of American capital conquered all.
1 但随后，无休无止的美国定居者浪潮、美国军队以及美国资本不可阻挡的涌入征服了一切。
Often in violation of its own treaties, the United States removed Native groups to ever-shrinking reservations, incorporated the West first as territories and then as states, and, for the first time in its history, controlled the enormity of land between the two oceans.
美国经常违反自己签订的条约，将原住民群体驱逐到不断缩小的保留地，首先将西方作为领土，然后作为州，并在其历史上第一次控制了两大洋之间的大片土地。
The history of the late-nineteenth-century West is not a simple story.
十九世纪末西方的历史并不是一个简单的故事。
What some touted as a triumph—the westward expansion of American authority—was for others a tragedy.
一些人吹捧为胜利的事情——美国权威的向西扩张——对另一些人来说却是一场悲剧。
The West contained many peoples and many places, and their intertwined histories marked a pivotal transformation in the history of the United States.
西部地区有许多民族和许多地方，他们相互交织的历史标志着美国历史上的关键转变。
In the decades after the Civil War, American settlers poured across the Mississippi River in record numbers.
内战结束后的几十年里，美国定居者涌入密西西比河的人数创历史新高。
No longer simply crossing over the continent for new imagined Edens in California or Oregon, they settled now in the vast heart of the continent.
他们不再简单地穿越这片大陆，去加利福尼亚或俄勒冈州想象中的新伊甸园，而是在这片大陆广阔的中心定居下来。
Many of the first American migrants had come to the West in search of quick profits during the midcentury gold and silver rushes.
许多第一批美国移民在上世纪中叶的淘金热和白银热期间来到西方寻求快速利润。
As in the California rush of 1848–1849, droves of prospectors poured in after precious-metal strikes in Colorado in 1858, Nevada in 1859, Idaho in 1860, Montana in 1863, and the Black Hills in 1874.
正如 1848 年至 1849 年加利福尼亚热潮一样，1858 年科罗拉多州、1859 年内华达州、1860 年爱达荷州、1863 年蒙大拿州和 1874 年布莱克山的贵金属开采后，大批探矿者涌入。
While women often performed housework that allowed mining families to subsist in often difficult conditions, a significant portion of the mining workforce were single men without families dependent on service industries in nearby towns and cities.
虽然妇女经常从事家务劳动，使采矿家庭能够在通常困难的条件下生存，但采矿劳动力中很大一部分是单身男性，他们的家庭依赖附近城镇的服务业。
There, working-class women worked in shops, saloons, boardinghouses, and brothels.
在那里，工人阶级妇女在商店、酒吧、寄宿处和妓院工作。
Many of these ancillary operations profited from the mining boom: as failed prospectors found, the rush itself often generated more wealth than the mines.
许多这些辅助业务都从采矿热潮中获利：正如失败的探矿者所发现的那样，热潮本身往往比矿山创造了更多的财富。
The gold that left Colorado in the first seven years after the Pikes Peak gold strike—estimated at $25.5 million—was, for instance, less than half of what outside parties had invested in the fever.
例如，在派克峰金矿开采后的头七年里，离开科罗拉多州的黄金（估计为 2550 万美元）还不到外部各方在热潮中投资的一半。
The 100,000-plus migrants who settled in the Rocky Mountains were ultimately more valuable to the region’s development than the gold they came to find.
定居在落基山脉的十万多名移民最终对该地区的发展比他们发现的黄金更有价值。
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Others came to the Plains to extract the hides of the great bison herds.
其他人则来到平原提取大野牛群的皮。
Millions of animals had roamed the Plains, but their tough leather supplied industrial belting in eastern factories and raw material for the booming clothing industry.
数以百万计的动物在平原上漫步，但它们坚韧的皮革为东部工厂提供了工业皮带，并为蓬勃发展的服装业提供了原材料。
Specialized teams took down and skinned the herds.
专业团队将牛群捕获并剥皮。
The infamous American bison slaughter peaked in the early 1870s.
臭名昭著的美洲野牛屠杀在 1870 年代初达到顶峰。
The number of American bison plummeted from over ten million at midcentury to only a few hundred by the early 1880s.
美洲野牛的数量从 20 世纪中叶的 1000 万多头锐减到 1880 年代初的只有几百头。
The expansion of the railroads allowed ranching to replace the bison with cattle on the American grasslands.
铁路的扩建使得美国草原上的牧场能够用牛取代野牛。
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While bison supplied leather for America’s booming clothing industry, the skulls of the animals also provided a key ingredient in fertilizer.
野牛为美国蓬勃发展的服装业提供皮革，而动物的头骨也提供了肥料的关键成分。
This 1870s photograph illustrates the massive number of bison killed for these and other reasons (including sport) in the second half of the nineteenth century.
这张 1870 年代的照片展示了 19 世纪下半叶由于这些原因和其他原因（包括运动）而猎杀的大量野牛。
Photograph of a pile of American bison skulls waiting to be ground for fertilizer, 1870s.
1870 年代，一堆美洲野牛头骨等待被磨碎用作肥料的照片。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
The nearly seventy thousand members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (more commonly called Mormons) who migrated west between 1846 and 1868 were similar to other Americans traveling west on the overland trails.
1846 年至 1868 年间向西迁移的耶稣基督后期圣徒教会（通常称为摩门教徒）的近七万名成员与其他通过陆路向西迁移的美国人类似。
They faced many of the same problems, but unlike most other American migrants, Mormons were fleeing from religious persecution.
他们面临许多相同的问题，但与大多数其他美国移民不同，摩门教徒是为了逃避宗教迫害。
Many historians view Mormonism as a “uniquely American faith,” not just because it was founded by Joseph Smith in New York in the 1830s, but because of its optimistic and future-oriented tenets.
许多历史学家将摩门教视为“独特的美国信仰”，不仅因为它是由约瑟夫·史密斯于 1830 年代在纽约创立的，还因为它乐观且面向未来的信条。
Mormons believed that Americans were exceptional—chosen by God to spread truth across the world and to build utopia, a New Jerusalem in North America.
摩门教徒相信美国人是杰出的——被上帝选中在世界各地传播真理并建立乌托邦——北美的新耶路撒冷。
However, many Americans were suspicious of the Latter-Day Saint movement and its unusual rituals, especially the practice of polygamy, and most Mormons found it difficult to practice their faith in the eastern United States.
然而，许多美国人对后期圣徒运动及其不寻常的仪式，尤其是一夫多妻制的做法表示怀疑，大多数摩门教徒发现很难在美国东部实践他们的信仰。
Thus began a series of migrations in the midnineteenth century, first to Illinois, then Missouri and Nebraska, and finally into Utah Territory.
由此开始了十九世纪中叶的一系列移民，首先是伊利诺伊州，然后是密苏里州和内布拉斯加州，最后进入犹他州。
Once in the west, Mormon settlements served as important supply points for other emigrants heading on to California and Oregon.
一旦到达西部，摩门教定居点就成为其他前往加利福尼亚州和俄勒冈州的移民的重要补给点。
Brigham Young, the leader of the Church after the death of Joseph Smith, was appointed governor of the Utah Territory by the federal government in 1850.
约瑟·史密斯死后，教会领袖杨百翰于 1850 年被联邦政府任命为犹他领地总督。
He encouraged Mormon residents of the territory to engage in agricultural pursuits and be cautious of the outsiders who arrived as the mining and railroad industries developed in the region.
他鼓励该地区的摩门教居民从事农业活动，并警惕随着该地区采矿和铁路工业的发展而到来的外来者。
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It was land, ultimately, that drew the most migrants to the West.
最终，吸引最多移民来到西方的是土地。
Family farms were the backbone of the agricultural economy that expanded in the West after the Civil War.
家庭农场是内战后西方农业经济扩张的支柱。
In 1862, northerners in Congress passed the Homestead Act, which allowed male citizens (or those who declared their intent to become citizens) to claim federally owned lands in the West.
1862 年，国会中的北方人通过了《宅地法案》，该法案允许男性公民（或那些宣称有意成为公民的人）在西部拥有联邦拥有的土地。
Settlers could head west, choose a 160-acre surveyed section of land, file a claim, and begin “improving” the land by plowing fields, building houses and barns, or digging wells, and, after five years of living on the land, could apply for the official title deed to the land.
定居者可以向西走，选择一块 160 英亩的勘测土地，提出索赔，并开始通过耕田、建造房屋和谷仓或挖井来“改善”土地，并在这片土地上居住五年后，可以申请该土地的正式所有权契据。
Hundreds of thousands of Americans used the Homestead Act to acquire land.
数十万美国人利用《宅地法》获得土地。
The treeless plains that had been considered unfit for settlement became the new agricultural mecca for land-hungry Americans.
曾经被认为不适合定居的没有树木的平原成为了渴望土地的美国人的新农业圣地。
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The Homestead Act excluded married women from filing claims because they were considered the legal dependents of their husbands.
《宅地法》禁止已婚妇女提出索赔，因为她们被视为丈夫的合法受抚养人。
Some unmarried women filed claims on their own, but single farmers (male or female) were hard-pressed to run a farm and they were a small minority.
一些未婚女性自行提出索赔，但单身农民（男性或女性）经营农场面临困难，而且她们只是少数。
Most farm households adopted traditional divisions of labor: men worked in the fields and women managed the home and kept the family fed.
大多数农户采用传统的劳动分工：男人在田里干活，女人操持家务、养家糊口。
Both were essential.
两者都是必不可少的。
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Migrants sometimes found in homesteads a self-sufficiency denied at home.
移民有时会在家园中发现在家乡无法实现的自给自足。
Second or third sons who did not inherit land in Scandinavia, for instance, founded farm communities in Minnesota, Dakota, and other Midwestern territories in the 1860s.
例如，没有继承斯堪的纳维亚半岛土地的第二个或第三个儿子在 1860 年代在明尼苏达州、达科他州和其他中西部地区建立了农场社区。
Boosters encouraged emigration by advertising the semiarid Plains as, for instance, “a flowery meadow of great fertility clothed in nutritious grasses, and watered by numerous streams.” 7 Western populations exploded.
支持者通过宣传半干旱平原来鼓励移民，例如，“一片肥沃的鲜花盛开的草地，长满了营养丰富的草，有无数溪流浇灌。” 7 西方人口爆炸。
The Plains were transformed.
平原发生了翻天覆地的变化。
In 1860, for example, Kansas had about 10,000 farms; in 1880 it had 239,000.
例如，1860 年，堪萨斯州大约有 10,000 个农场； 1880 年有 239,000 人。
Texas saw enormous population growth.
德克萨斯州人口大幅增长。
The federal government counted 200,000 people in Texas in 1850, 1,600,000 in 1880, and 3,000,000 in 1900, making it the sixth most populous state in the nation.
联邦政府统计，德克萨斯州 1850 年有 20 万人口，1880 年为 160 万，1900 年为 300 万，使其成为美国人口第六多的州。
The “Indian wars,” so mythologized in western folklore, were a series of seemingly sporadic, localized, and often brief engagements between U.S. military forces and various Native American groups.
在西方民间传说中如此神话化的“印第安战争”是美国军队与各个美洲原住民群体之间一系列看似零星、局部且往往短暂的交战。
More sustained and equally impactful conflicts were economic and cultural.
更持久且同样具有影响力的冲突是经济和文化冲突。
New patterns of American settlement, railroad construction, and material extraction clashed with the vast and cyclical movement across the Great Plains to hunt buffalo, raid enemies, and trade goods.
美国定居、铁路建设和材料开采的新模式与跨越大平原的大规模、周期性的猎杀水牛、袭击敌人和贸易货物的运动发生了冲突。
Thomas Jefferson’s old dream that Indigenous nations might live isolated in the West was, in the face of American expansion, no longer a viable reality.
面对美国的扩张，托马斯·杰斐逊关于土著民族可能在西方孤立生活的旧梦想已不再是一个可行的现实。
Political, economic, and even humanitarian concerns intensified American efforts to isolate Native Americans on reservations.
政治、经济甚至人道主义的担忧加剧了美国隔离保留地美洲原住民的努力。
Although Indian removal had long been a part of federal Indian policy, following the Civil War the U.S. government redoubled its efforts.
尽管驱逐印第安人长期以来一直是联邦印第安人政策的一部分，但内战结束后，美国政府加倍努力。
If treaties and other forms of persistent coercion would not work, federal officials pushed for more drastic measures: after the Civil War, coordinated military action by celebrity Civil War generals such as William Sherman and William Sheridan exploited and exacerbated local conflicts sparked by illegal business ventures and settler incursions.
如果条约和其他形式的持续胁迫不起作用，联邦官员就会推动采取更严厉的措施：内战结束后，威廉·谢尔曼和威廉·谢里登等内战名人将军协调军事行动，利用并加剧了非法商业企业和定居者入侵引发的当地冲突。
Against the threat of confinement and the extinction of traditional ways of life, Native Americans battled the American army and the encroaching lines of American settlement.
面对监禁的威胁和传统生活方式的灭绝，美洲原住民与美国军队和美国定居点的侵蚀线进行了战斗。
In one of the earliest western engagements, in 1862, while the Civil War still consumed the United States, tensions erupted between Dakota Nation and white settlers in Minnesota and the Dakota Territory.
1862 年，美国内战仍在席卷美国，这是西方最早的交战之一，达科他民族与明尼苏达州和达科他领地的白人定居者之间爆发了紧张局势。
The 1850 U.S. census recorded a white population of about 6,000 in Minnesota; eight years later, when it became a state, it was more than 150,000.
1850 年美国人口普查显示，明尼苏达州白人人口约为 6,000 人；八年后，当它成为一个州时，人口已超过15万。
8 The illegal influx of American farmers pushed the Dakota to the breaking point.
8 美国农民的非法涌入将达科他州推向了崩溃的边缘。
Hunting became unsustainable and those Dakota who had taken up farming found only poverty.
狩猎变得不可持续，那些从事农业的达科他州人只发现贫穷。
The federal Indian agent refused to disburse promised food.
印度联邦特工拒绝支付承诺的食物。
Many starved.
许多人挨饿了。
Andrew Myrick, a trader at the agency, refused to sell food on credit.
该机构的交易员安德鲁·迈里克（Andrew Myrick）拒绝赊销食品。
“If they are hungry,” he is alleged to have said, “let them eat grass or their own dung.” 9 Then, on August 17, 1862, four young men of the Santees, a Dakota band, killed five white settlers near the Redwood Agency, an American administrative office.
据称他曾说过：“如果他们饿了，就让他们吃草或自己的粪便。” 9 然后，1862 年 8 月 17 日，达科他州桑蒂斯部落的四名年轻人在美国行政办公室红杉署附近杀害了五名白人定居者。
In the face of an inevitable American retaliation, and over the protests of many members, the tribe chose war.
面对美国不可避免的报复，在许多成员的抗议下，部落选择了战争。
On the following day, Dakota warriors attacked settlements near the Agency.
第二天，达科他州战士袭击了该机构附近的定居点。
They killed thirty-one men, women, and children (including Myrick, whose mouth was found filled with grass).
他们杀死了三十一名男人、女人和儿童（包括迈里克，他的嘴里被发现塞满了草）。
They then ambushed a U.S. military detachment at Redwood Ferry, killing twenty-three.
随后，他们在雷德伍德渡口伏击了一支美军分遣队，造成 23 人死亡。
The governor of Minnesota called up militia and several thousand Americans waged war against the Indigenous insurgents.
明尼苏达州州长召集了民兵，数千名美国人对土著叛乱分子发动了战争。
Fighting broke out at New Ulm, Fort Ridgely, and Birch Coulee, but the Americans broke Indigenous resistance at the Battle of Wood Lake on September 23, ending the so-called Dakota War.
新乌尔姆、里奇利堡和伯奇古利爆发了战斗，但美国人于 9 月 23 日在伍德湖战役中击败了原住民的抵抗，结束了所谓的达科他战争。
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Buffalo Soldiers, the nickname given to African-American cavalrymen by the native Americans they fought, were the first peacetime all-black regiments in the regular United States army.
布法罗士兵是与他们作战的美国原住民对非裔美国骑兵的昵称，是和平时期美国正规军中第一支全黑人军团。
These soldiers regularly confronted racial prejudice from other Army members and civilians but were an essential part of American victories during the Indian Wars of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
这些士兵经常面临来自其他陆军成员和平民的种族偏见，但他们是美国在十九世纪末和二十世纪初印第安战争中取得胜利的重要组成部分。
“[Buffalo soldiers of the 25th Infantry, some wearing buffalo robes, Ft.
“[第 25 步兵团的水牛士兵，一些穿着水牛长袍，英国《金融时报》。
Keogh, Montana] / Chr.
蒙大拿州基奥] / Chr.
Barthelmess, photographer, Fort Keogh, Montana,” 1890.
Barthelmess，摄影师，蒙大拿州基奥堡，”1890 年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
Farther south, settlers inflamed tensions in Colorado.
再往南，定居者加剧了科罗拉多州的紧张局势。
In 1851, the first Treaty of Fort Laramie had secured right-of-way access for Americans passing through on their way to California and Oregon.
1851 年，第一份《拉勒米堡条约》为美国人在前往加利福尼亚州和俄勒冈州途中获得了通行权。
But a gold rush in 1858 drew approximately 100,000 white gold seekers, and they demanded new treaties be made with local Indigenous groups to secure land rights in the newly created Colorado Territory.
但 1858 年的淘金热吸引了大约 100,000 名白金寻求者，他们要求与当地土著群体签订新条约，以确保新创建的科罗拉多领地的土地权。
Cheyenne bands splintered over the possibility of signing a new treaty that would confine them to a reservation.
夏延族群因签署新条约将他们限制在保留地的可能性而分裂。
Settlers, already wary of raids by powerful groups of Cheyennes, Arapahos, and Comanches, meanwhile read in their local newspapers sensationalist accounts of the uprising in Minnesota.
定居者已经对夏延斯、阿拉帕霍斯和科曼奇等强大团体的袭击保持警惕，与此同时，他们在当地报纸上读到了明尼苏达州起义的耸人听闻的报道。
Militia leader John M.
民兵领袖约翰·M.
Chivington warned settlers in the summer of 1864 that the Cheyenne were dangerous, urged war, and promised a swift military victory.
1864 年夏天，奇文顿警告定居者夏安人很危险，敦促发动战争，并承诺迅速取得军事胜利。
Settlers sparked conflict and sporadic fighting broke out.
定居者引发冲突，爆发零星战斗。
The aged Cheyenne chief Black Kettle, believing that a peace treaty would be best for his people, traveled to Denver to arrange for peace talks.
年迈的夏安酋长布莱克·凯特尔相信和平条约对他的人民来说是最好的，因此前往丹佛安排和平谈判。
He and his followers traveled toward Fort Lyon in accordance with government instructions, but on November 29, 1864, Chivington ordered his seven hundred militiamen to move on the Cheyenne camp near Fort Lyon at Sand Creek.
他和他的追随者按照政府指示前往里昂堡，但 1864 年 11 月 29 日，奇文顿命令他的 700 名民兵前往沙溪里昂堡附近的夏延营地。
The Cheyenne tried to declare their peaceful intentions but Chivington’s militia cut them down.
夏延人试图宣布他们的和平意图，但奇文顿的民兵击退了他们。
It was a slaughter.
这是一场屠杀。
Chivington’s men killed two hundred men, women, and children.
奇文顿的手下杀死了两百名男女老少。
11 The Sand Creek Massacre was a national scandal, alternately condemned and applauded.
11 沙溪大屠杀是一场全国丑闻，人们时而谴责，时而赞扬。
As settler incursions continued to provoke conflict, Americans pushed for a new “peace policy.” Congress, confronted with these tragedies and further violence, authorized in 1868 the creation of an Indian Peace Commission.
随着定居者的入侵继续引发冲突，美国人推动了新的“和平政策”。面对这些悲剧和进一步的暴力，国会于 1868 年授权成立印度和平委员会。
The commission’s study of Native Americans decried prior American policy and galvanized support for reformers.
该委员会对美洲原住民的研究谴责了美国之前的政策，并激发了对改革者的支持。
After the inauguration of Ulysses S.
尤利西斯·S·就职典礼后
Grant the following spring, Congress allied with prominent philanthropists to create the Board of Indian Commissioners, a permanent advisory body to oversee Indigenous affairs and prevent the further outbreak of violence.
第二年春天，国会与著名慈善家联合成立了印第安人专员委员会，这是一个监督土著事务并防止暴力进一步爆发的常设咨询机构。
The board effectively Christianized American Indian policy.
该委员会有效地将美洲印第安人政策基督教化。
Much of the reservation system was handed over to Protestant churches, which were tasked with finding agents and missionaries to manage reservation life.
保留地系统的大部分被移交给新教教会，它们的任务是寻找代理人和传教士来管理保留地的生活。
Congress hoped that religiously minded men might fare better at creating just assimilation policies and persuading Native Americans to accept them.
国会希望有宗教信仰的人能够更好地制定公正的同化政策并说服美洲原住民接受这些政策。
Historian Francis Paul Prucha believed that this attempt at a new “peace policy .
历史学家弗朗西斯·保罗·普鲁查认为，这是一种新的“和平政策”的尝试。
.
。
.
。
might just have properly been labelled the ‘religious policy.’” 12
也许可以恰当地贴上‘宗教政策’的标签。”12
Tom Torlino, a member of the Navajo Nation, entered the Carlisle Indian School, a Native American boarding school founded by the United States government in 1879, on October 21, 1882 and departed on August 28, 1886.
汤姆·托利诺 (Tom Torlino) 是纳瓦霍族成员，于 1882 年 10 月 21 日进入卡莱尔印第安学校 (Carlisle Indian School)，这是一所由美国政府于 1879 年创办的美国原住民寄宿学校，并于 1886 年 8 月 28 日离开。
Torlino’s student file contained photographs from 1882 and 1885.
托利诺的学生档案包含 1882 年和 1885 年的照片。
Carlisle Indian School Digital Resource Center .
卡莱尔印第安学校数字资源中心。
Many female Christian missionaries played a central role in cultural reeducation programs that attempted to not only instill Protestant religion but also impose traditional American gender roles and family structures.
许多女性基督教传教士在文化再教育计划中发挥了核心作用，这些计划不仅试图灌输新教宗教，而且强加传统的美国性别角色和家庭结构。
They endeavored to replace Indigenous peoples’ tribal social units with small, patriarchal households.
他们努力用小型的父权制家庭取代土著人民的部落社会单位。
Women’s labor became a contentious issue because few tribes divided labor according to the gender norms of middle- and upper-class Americans.
女性劳动成为一个有争议的问题，因为很少有部落按照美国中上层阶级的性别规范来划分劳动。
Fieldwork, the traditional domain of white males, was primarily performed by Native women, who also usually controlled the products of their labor, if not the land that was worked, giving them status in society as laborers and food providers.
田野工作是白人男性的传统领域，主要由土著妇女进行，她们通常也控制着自己的劳动产品（如果不是耕种的土地的话），这使她们在社会中享有劳动者和食品提供者的地位。
For missionaries, the goal was to get Native women to leave the fields and engage in more proper “women’s” work—housework.
对于传教士来说，目标是让土著妇女离开田野，从事更合适的“女性”工作——家务。
Christian missionaries performed much as secular federal agents had.
基督教传教士的表现与世俗联邦特工的表现很相似。
Few American agents could meet Native Americans on their own terms.
很少有美国特工能够按照自己的方式与美洲原住民会面。
Most Americans viewed Indigenous peoples on reservations as lazy and thought of Indigenous cultures as inferior to their own.
大多数美国人认为保留地的原住民很懒，并且认为原住民文化不如他们自己的文化。
The views of J.
J.的观点
L.
L。
Broaddus, appointed to oversee several small tribes on the Hoopa Valley reservation in California, are illustrative: in his annual report to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for 1875, he wrote, “The great majority of them are idle, listless, careless, and improvident.
布罗德杜斯被任命负责管理加利福尼亚州胡帕谷保留地的几个小部落，他的情况就很说明问题：在 1875 年向印第安事务专员提交的年度报告中，他写道：“他们中的绝大多数人无所事事、无精打采、粗心大意、缺乏远见。
They seem to take no thought about provision for the future, and many of them would not work at all if they were not compelled to do so.
他们似乎没有考虑过为未来做准备，如果不是被迫，他们中的许多人根本就不会工作。
They would rather live upon the roots and acorns gathered by their women than to work for flour and beef.” 13
他们宁愿靠妇女采集的树根和橡子为生，也不愿为面粉和牛肉而工作。” 13
If Indigenous peoples could not be forced through kindness to change their ways, most Americans agreed that it was acceptable to use force, which Native groups resisted.
如果不能通过善意迫使原住民改变他们的生活方式，大多数美国人都同意使用武力是可以接受的，但原住民群体对此表示抵制。
In Texas and the Southern Plains, the Comanche, the Kiowa, and their allies had wielded enormous influence.
在德克萨斯州和南部平原，科曼奇人、基奥瓦人及其盟友发挥了巨大的影响力。
The Comanche in particular controlled huge swaths of territory and raided vast areas, inspiring terror from the Rocky Mountains to the interior of northern Mexico to the Texas Gulf Coast.
尤其是科曼奇人控制着大片领土并袭击了大片地区，从落基山脉到墨西哥北部内陆再到德克萨斯州墨西哥湾沿岸，引发了恐怖。
But after the Civil War, the U.S. military refocused its attention on the Southern Plains.
但南北战争结束后，美军将注意力重新集中在南部平原。
The American military first sent messengers to the Plains to find the elusive Comanche bands and ask them to come to peace negotiations at Medicine Lodge Creek in the fall of 1867.
1867 年秋天，美国军方首先派遣信使前往平原寻找难以捉摸的科曼奇部落，并邀请他们前往梅迪辛洛奇溪进行和平谈判。
But terms were muddled: American officials believed that Comanche bands had accepted reservation life, while Comanche leaders believed they were guaranteed vast lands for buffalo hunting.
但条款混乱：美国官员认为科曼奇族群已经接受了保留地生活，而科曼奇领导人则相信他们将获得广阔的土地用于水牛狩猎。
Comanche bands used designated reservation lands as a base from which to collect supplies and federal annuity goods while continuing to hunt, trade, and raid American settlements in Texas.
科曼奇部落使用指定的保留地作为基地，从中收集物资和联邦年金物品，同时继续狩猎、交易和袭击德克萨斯州的美国人定居点。
Confronted with renewed Comanche raiding, particularly by the famed war leader Quanah Parker, the U.S. military finally proclaimed that all Indigenous peoples who were not settled on the reservation by the fall of 1874 would be considered “hostile.” The Red River War began when many Comanche bands refused to resettle and the American military launched expeditions into the Plains to subdue them, culminating in the defeat of the remaining roaming bands in the canyonlands of the Texas Panhandle.
面对新一轮的科曼奇袭击，尤其是著名战争领袖夸纳·帕克的袭击，美国军方最终宣布，所有在 1874 年秋天尚未在保留地定居的原住民将被视为“敌对”。红河战争始于许多科曼奇族群拒绝重新定居，美国军队向平原发起远征以制服他们，最终导致德克萨斯州狭长地带峡谷中剩余的游牧族群被击败。
Cold and hungry, with their way of life already decimated by soldiers, settlers, cattlemen, and railroads, the last free Comanche bands were moved to the reservation at Fort Sill, in what is now southwestern Oklahoma.
寒冷和饥饿，他们的生活方式已经被士兵、定居者、牧民和铁路摧毁，最后一批自由的科曼奇人被转移到了锡尔堡的保留地，位于现在的俄克拉荷马州西南部。
14
14
On the northern Plains, the Sioux people had yet to fully surrender.
在北部平原，苏族尚未完全投降。
Following the military defeats of 1862, many bands had signed treaties with the United States and drifted into the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies to collect rations and annuities, but many continued to resist American encroachment, particularly during Red Cloud’s War, a rare victory for the Plains people that resulted in the Treaty of 1868 and created the Great Sioux Reservation.
1862 年军事失败后，许多部落与美国签署了条约，并进入红云和斑尾机构收集口粮和年金，但许多部落继续抵制美国的入侵，特别是在红云战争期间，这是平原人民罕见的胜利，最终签订了 1868 年条约并创建了大苏族保留地。
Then, in 1874, an American expedition to the Black Hills of South Dakota discovered gold.
随后，1874 年，一支美国探险队前往南达科他州的布莱克山发现了金矿。
White prospectors flooded the territory.
白人探矿者涌入该地区。
Caring very little about Indigenous rights and very much about getting rich, they brought the Sioux situation again to its breaking point.
他们很少关心原住民的权利，而非常关心致富，因此他们将苏族的局势再次推向了崩溃的边缘。
Aware that U.S. citizens were violating treaty provisions, but unwilling to prevent them from searching for gold, federal officials pressured the western Sioux to sign a new treaty that would transfer control of the Black Hills to the United States while General Philip Sheridan quietly moved U.S. troops into the region.
联邦官员意识到美国公民违反了条约规定，但不愿意阻止他们寻找黄金，于是向西部苏族人施压，要求他们签署一项新条约，将布莱克山的控制权移交给美国，而菲利普·谢里登将军则悄悄地将美军调入该地区。
Initial clashes between U.S. troops and Sioux warriors resulted in several Sioux victories that, combined with the visions of Sitting Bull, who had dreamed of an even more triumphant victory, attracted Sioux bands who had already signed treaties but now joined to fight.
美军和苏族战士之间的最初冲突导致了苏族人的几次胜利，再加上坐牛梦想着取得更大胜利的愿景，吸引了那些已经签署了条约但现在加入战斗的苏族部落。
15
15
In late June 1876, a division of the 7th Cavalry Regiment led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer was sent up a trail into the Black Hills as an advance guard for a larger force.
1876 年 6 月下旬，乔治·阿姆斯特朗·卡斯特中校率领的第 7 骑兵团的一个师被派往布莱克山的一条小路上，作为更大部队的先头部队。
Custer’s men approached a camp along a river known to the Sioux as Greasy Grass but marked on Custer’s map as Little Bighorn, and they found that the influx of “treaty” Sioux as well as aggrieved Cheyenne and other allies had swelled the population of the village far beyond Custer’s estimation.
卡斯特的部下接近苏族人称为油腻草的一条河沿岸的一个营地，但在卡斯特的地图上标记为小大角，他们发现“条约”苏族以及愤愤不平的夏延和其他盟友的涌入使得该村的人口数量远远超出了卡斯特的估计。
Custer’s 7th Cavalry was vastly outnumbered, and he and 268 of his men were killed.
卡斯特的第七骑兵团在数量上远远落后，他和他的 268 名部下阵亡。
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16
Custer’s fall shocked the nation.
卡斯特的倒台震惊了全国。
Cries for a swift American response filled the public sphere, and military expeditions were sent out to crush Native resistance.
公共领域充满了要求美国迅速做出反应的呼声，并派出军事远征队镇压原住民的抵抗。
The Sioux splintered off into the wilderness and began a campaign of intermittent resistance but, outnumbered and suffering after a long, hungry winter, Crazy Horse led a band of Oglala Sioux to surrender in May 1877.
苏族人分散到荒野中，开始了间歇性的抵抗运动，但由于寡不敌众，而且在经历了一个漫长、饥饿的冬天之后，疯马带领一群奥格拉拉苏族人于 1877 年 5 月投降。
Other bands gradually followed until finally, in July 1881, Sitting Bull and his followers at last laid down their weapons and came to the reservation.
其他乐队也逐渐跟进，直到 1881 年 7 月，坐牛和他的追随者终于放下武器来到了保留地。
Indigenous powers had been defeated.
土著势力已被击败。
The Plains, it seemed, had been pacified.
看来平原已经平定了。
Plains peoples were not the only ones who suffered as a result of American expansion.
平原人民并不是唯一因美国扩张而遭受苦难的人。
Groups like the Utes and Paiutes were pushed out of the Rocky Mountains by U.S. expansion into Colorado and away from the northern Great Basin by the expanding Mormon population in Utah Territory in the 1850s and 1860s.
1850 年代和 1860 年代，犹他人和派尤特人等族群因美国向科罗拉多州的扩张而被赶出落基山脉，并因犹他领地摩门教人口的扩张而被赶出北部大盆地。
Faced with a shrinking territorial base, members of these two groups often joined the U.S. military in its campaigns in the southwest against other powerful Native groups like the Hopi, the Zuni, the Jicarilla Apache, and especially the Navajo, whose population of at least ten thousand engaged in both farming and sheep herding on some of the most valuable lands acquired by the United States after the Mexican War.
面对不断缩小的领土基础，这两个群体的成员经常加入美国军队在西南部对抗其他强大的原住民群体，如霍皮人、祖尼人、吉卡里拉阿帕奇人，尤其是纳瓦霍人，他们在墨西哥战争后美国获得的一些最有价值的土地上从事农业和牧羊业。
Conflicts between the U.S. military, American settlers, and Native nations increased throughout the 1850s.
整个 1850 年代，美国军队、美国定居者和原住民之间的冲突不断增加。
By 1862, General James Carleton began searching for a reservation where he could remove the Navajo and end their threat to U.S. expansion in the Southwest.
1862 年，詹姆斯·卡尔顿 (James Carleton) 将军开始寻找保留地，在那里他可以消灭纳瓦霍人并结束他们对美国西南部扩张的威胁。
Carleton selected a dry, almost treeless site in the Bosque Redondo Valley, three hundred miles from the Navajo homeland.
卡尔顿选择了博斯克雷东多山谷一处干燥、几乎没有树木的地点，距离纳瓦霍人的故乡三百英里。
In April 1863, Carleton gave orders to Colonel Kit Carson to round up the entire Navajo population and escort them to Bosque Redondo.
1863 年 4 月，卡尔顿命令基特·卡森上校围捕所有纳瓦霍人，并将他们护送到博斯克雷东多。
Those who resisted would be shot.
那些反抗的人会被枪杀。
Thus began a period of Navajo history called the Long Walk, which remains deeply important to Navajo people today.
由此开始了纳瓦霍历史上一段被称为“长步走”的时期，这对今天的纳瓦霍人来说仍然具有深远的意义。
The Long Walk was not a single event but a series of forced marches to the reservation at Bosque Redondo between August 1863 and December 1866.
长途步行并不是单一事件，而是 1863 年 8 月至 1866 年 12 月期间向博斯克雷东多保留地进行的一系列强行行军。
Conditions at Bosque Redondo were horrible.
博斯克雷东多的条件非常糟糕。
Provisions provided by the U.S. Army were not only inadequate but often spoiled; disease was rampant, and thousands of Navajos died.
美国陆军提供的给养不仅不足，而且经常损坏。疾病猖獗，数千纳瓦霍人死亡。
By 1868, it had become clear that life at the reservation was unsustainable.
到 1868 年，人们已经清楚地意识到保留地的生活已经无法持续。
General William Tecumseh Sherman visited the reservation and wrote of the inhumane situation in which the Navajo were essentially kept as prisoners, but lack of cost-effectiveness was the main reason Sherman recommended that the Navajo be returned to their homeland in the West.
威廉·特库姆塞·谢尔曼将军参观了保留地，并描述了纳瓦霍人基本上被当作囚犯的不人道状况，但缺乏成本效益是谢尔曼建议纳瓦霍人返回他们在西部的家园的主要原因。
On June 1, 1868, the Navajo signed the Treaty of Bosque Redondo, an unprecedented treaty in the history of U.S.-Native relations in which the Navajo were able to return from the reservation to their homeland.
1868 年 6 月 1 日，纳瓦霍人签署了《博斯克雷东多条约》，这是美国与原住民关系史上前所未有的条约，纳瓦霍人得以从保留地返回家园。
The attacks on Native nations in California and the Pacific Northwest received significantly less attention than the dramatic conquest of the Plains, but Native peoples in these regions also experienced violence, population decline, and territorial loss.
对加利福尼亚和太平洋西北地区原住民的袭击远不如对平原的戏剧性征服那样受到关注，但这些地区的原住民也经历了暴力、人口下降和领土丧失。
For example, in 1872, the California/Oregon border erupted in violence when the Modoc people left the reservation of the Klamath Nation, onto which they had been forced, and returned to their homelands in an area known as Lost River.
例如，1872 年，莫多克人被迫离开克拉马斯族保留地，返回位于失落河地区的家园，加利福尼亚州和俄勒冈州边境爆发了暴力冲突。
Americans had settled the region after Modoc removal several years before, and they complained bitterly of the Natives’ return.
几年前，莫多克被驱逐后，美国人就在该地区定居，他们对原住民的回归怨声载道。
The U.S. military arrived when fifty-two remaining Modoc warriors, led by Kintpuash, known to settlers as Captain Jack, refused to return to the reservation and holed up in defensive positions along the state border.
美军抵达时，由金特普阿什（Kintpuash，定居者称为杰克船长）率领的 52 名剩余莫多克战士拒绝返回保留地，并躲藏在州边界沿线的防御阵地。
They fought a guerrilla war for eleven months in which at least two hundred U.S. troops were killed before they were finally forced to surrender.
他们打了十一个月的游击战，至少有两百名美军阵亡，最后被迫投降。
Despite appeals from settlers acquainted with the Modoc, the federal government hanged Kintpuash and three others leaders in a highly choreographed and publicized public execution.
尽管熟悉莫多克的定居者提出上诉，联邦政府还是在精心设计和公开的公开处决中绞死了金特普阿什和其他三名领导人。
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17 号
Four years later, in the Pacific Northwest, a branch of the Nez Perce (who, generations earlier, had aided Lewis and Clark in their famous journey to the Pacific Ocean) refused to be moved to a reservation and, under the leadership of Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt, known to settlers and American readers as Chief Joseph, attempted to flee to Canada but were pursued by the U.S. Cavalry.
四年后，在太平洋西北地区，内兹珀斯人的一个分支（他们在几代人之前曾帮助刘易斯和克拉克进行著名的太平洋之旅）拒绝迁移到保留地，并在被定居者和美国读者称为约瑟夫酋长的欣马图亚拉特凯克特 (Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt) 的领导下，试图逃往加拿大，但遭到美国骑兵的追击。
The outnumbered Nez Perce battled across a thousand miles and were attacked nearly two dozen times before they succumbed to hunger and exhaustion, surrendered, were imprisoned, and removed to a reservation in Indian Territory.
数量上处于劣势的内兹珀斯人在一千英里的范围内作战，遭到了近二十次袭击，然后他们屈服于饥饿和疲惫，投降，被监禁，并被转移到印第安领土的保留地。
The flight of the Nez Perce captured the attention of the United States, and a transcript of Chief Joseph’s surrender, as allegedly recorded by a U.S. Army officer, became a landmark of American rhetoric.
内兹珀斯人的逃亡引起了美国的注意，据称由一名美国陆军军官记录的约瑟夫酋长投降的笔录成为美国言论的一个里程碑。
“Hear me, my chiefs,” Joseph was supposed to have said, “I am tired.
“听我说，我的首领们，”约瑟夫应该说，“我累了。
My heart is sick and sad.
我的心感到恶心和悲伤。
From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever.” Chief Joseph used his celebrity, and, after several years, negotiated his people’s relocation to a reservation nearer to their historic home.
从现在太阳所在的地方，我将永远不再战斗。”约瑟夫酋长利用他的名气，几年后通过谈判将他的人民搬迁到离他们历史悠久的家园更近的保留地。
18
18
The treaties that had been signed with numerous Native nations in California in the 1850s were never ratified by the Senate.
1850 年代与加州众多原住民签署的条约从未得到参议院批准。
Over one hundred distinct Native groups lived in California before the Spanish and American conquests, but by 1880, the Native population of California had collapsed from about 150,000 on the eve of the gold rush to a little less than 20,000.
在西班牙和美国征服之前，加利福尼亚州居住着一百多个不同的土著群体，但到 1880 年，加利福尼亚州的土著人口已从淘金热前夕的约 150,000 人锐减至略低于 20,000 人。
A few reservation areas were eventually set up by the U.S. government to collect what remained of the Native population, but most were dispersed throughout California.
美国政府最终设立了一些保留区来收集剩余的原住民，但大多数都分散在加利福尼亚州各地。
This was partly the result of state laws from the 1850s that allowed white Californians to obtain both Native children and adults as “apprentice” laborers by merely bringing the desired laborer before a judge and promising to feed, clothe, and eventually release them after a period of “service” that ranged from ten to twenty years.
这在一定程度上是由于 1850 年代的州法律允许白人加州人获得土著儿童和成年人作为“学徒”劳工，只需将所需的劳工带到法官面前，并承诺为他们提供食物、衣服，并最终在十年到二十年的“服务”期后释放他们。
Thousands of California’s Natives were thus pressed into a form of slave labor that supported the growing mining, agricultural, railroad, and cattle industries.
因此，成千上万的加州原住民被迫从事奴隶劳动，以支持不断增长的采矿、农业、铁路和养牛业。
Aside from agriculture and the extraction of natural resources—such as timber and precious metals—two major industries fueled the new western economy: ranching and railroads.
除了农业和木材和贵金属等自然资源的开采之外，还有两个主要产业推动了新的西方经济：牧场和铁路。
Both developed in connection with each other, accelerated the inrush of settlers displacing Native peoples out, and shaped the collective American memory of the post–Civil War “Wild West.”
两者相互联系，加速了定居者的涌入，取代了原住民，并塑造了美国人对内战后“狂野西部”的集体记忆。
As one booster put it, “the West is purely a railroad enterprise.” No economic enterprise rivaled the railroads in scale, scope, or sheer impact.
正如一位支持者所说，“西方纯粹是一家铁路企业。”无论是规模、范围还是影响力，没有任何经济企业能够与铁路相媲美。
No other businesses had attracted such enormous sums of capital, and no other ventures ever received such lavish government subsidies (business historian Alfred Chandler called the railroads the “first modern business enterprise”).
没有其他企业吸引过如此巨额的资本，也没有其他企业获得过如此慷慨的政府补贴（商业历史学家阿尔弗雷德·钱德勒（Alfred Chandler）称铁路为“第一个现代商业企业”）。
19 By “annihilating time and space”—by connecting the vastness of the continent—the railroads transformed the United States and made the American West.
19 通过“消灭时间和空间”——通过连接广阔的大陆——铁路改变了美国并创造了美国西部。
Railroads made the settlement and growth of the West possible.
铁路使西部的定居和发展成为可能。
By the late nineteenth century, maps of the Midwest were filled with advertisements touting how quickly a traveler could traverse the country.
到十九世纪末，中西部的地图上充斥着宣传旅行者可以多快穿越该国的广告。
The Environment and Society Portal , a digital project from the Rachel Carson Center for Environment and Society, a joint initiative of LMU Munich and the Deutsches Museum.
环境与社会门户网站是雷切尔·卡森环境与社会中心的数字项目，是慕尼黑大学和德意志博物馆的联合倡议。
No railroad enterprise so captured the American imagination—or federal support—as the transcontinental railroad.
没有哪个铁路企业能像横贯大陆的铁路那样吸引美国人的想象力或联邦政府的支持。
The transcontinental railroad crossed western plains and mountains and linked the West Coast with the rail networks of the eastern United States.
横贯大陆的铁路穿越西部平原和山脉，将西海岸与美国东部的铁路网络连接起来。
Constructed from the west by the Central Pacific and from the east by the Union Pacific, the two roads were linked in Utah in 1869 to great national fanfare.
西边是中央太平洋公路，东边是联合太平洋公路，这两条公路于 1869 年在犹他州连接起来，引起了全国的轰动。
But such a herculean task was not easy, and national legislators threw enormous subsidies at railroad companies, a part of the Republican Party platform since 1856.
但这项艰巨的任务并不容易，国家立法者向铁路公司提供了巨额补贴，而铁路公司自 1856 年以来一直是共和党政纲的一部分。
The 1862 Pacific Railroad Act gave bonds of between $16,000 and $48,000 for each mile of construction and provided vast land grants to railroad companies.
1862 年的《太平洋铁路法案》为每英里的建设提供 16,000 至 48,000 美元的债券，并向铁路公司提供大量土地补助。
Between 1850 and 1871 alone, railroad companies received more than 175,000,000 acres of public land, an area larger than the state of Texas.
仅在 1850 年至 1871 年间，铁路公司就获得了超过 1.75 亿英亩的公共土地，面积比德克萨斯州还要大。
Investors reaped enormous profits.
投资者获得了巨大的利润。
As one congressional opponent put it in the 1870s, “If there be profit, the corporations may take it; if there be loss, the Government must bear it.” 20
正如一位国会反对者在 1870 年代所说的那样，“如果有利润，企业可以拿走；如果有损失，政府必须承担。” 20
If railroads attracted unparalleled subsidies and investments, they also created enormous labor demands.
如果铁路吸引了无与伦比的补贴和投资，它们也创造了巨大的劳动力需求。
By 1880, approximately four hundred thousand men—or nearly 2.5 percent of the nation’s entire workforce—labored in the railroad industry.
到 1880 年，大约有 40 万人（即全国劳动力总数的近 2.5%）在铁路行业工作。
Much of the work was dangerous and low-paying, and companies relied heavily on immigrant labor to build tracks.
大部分工作都是危险且低薪的，公司严重依赖移民劳工来修建轨道。
Companies employed Irish workers in the early nineteenth century and Chinese workers in the late nineteenth century.
公司在十九世纪初雇用爱尔兰工人，在十九世纪末雇用中国工人。
By 1880, over two hundred thousand Chinese migrants lived in the United States.
到 1880 年，已有超过 20 万中国移民居住在美国。
Once the rails were laid, companies still needed a large workforce to keep the trains running.
铁轨铺设完成后，公司仍然需要大量劳动力来维持火车运行。
Much railroad work was dangerous, but perhaps the most hazardous work was done by brakemen.
许多铁路工作都是危险的，但也许最危险的工作是由刹车工完成的。
Before the advent of automatic braking, an engineer would blow the “down brake” whistle and brakemen would scramble to the top of the moving train, regardless of the weather conditions, and run from car to car manually turning brakes.
在自动制动出现之前，工程师会吹响“向下制动”的哨子，制动员会爬到行驶中的火车顶部，无论天气状况如何，并从一节车厢跑到另一节车厢手动转动制动器。
Speed was necessary, and any slip could be fatal.
速度是必要的，任何失误都可能是致命的。
Brakemen were also responsible for coupling the cars, attaching them together with a large pin.
刹车工还负责连接汽车，用大销钉将它们连接在一起。
It was easy to lose a hand or finger and even a slight mistake could cause cars to collide.
很容易失去一只手或手指，甚至一个轻微的错误也可能导致汽车相撞。
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21
The railroads boomed.
铁路蓬勃发展。
In 1850, there were 9,000 miles of railroads in the United States.
1850年，美国有9,000英里的铁路。
In 1900 there were 190,000, including several transcontinental lines.
1900 年，共有 190,000 条线路，其中包括几条横贯大陆的线路。
22 To manage these vast networks of freight and passenger lines, companies converged rails at hub cities.
22 为了管理这些庞大的货运和客运线路网络，各公司将铁路集中在枢纽城市。
Of all the Midwestern and western cities that blossomed from the bridging of western resources and eastern capital in the late nineteenth century, Chicago was the most spectacular.
十九世纪末，在所有因西部资源与东部资本的联系而蓬勃发展的中西部和西部城市中，芝加哥最为壮观。
It grew from two hundred inhabitants in 1833 to over a million by 1890.
居民数量从 1833 年的 200 人增加到 1890 年的 100 万以上。
By 1893 it and the region from which it drew were completely transformed.
到 1893 年，它和它所绘制的地区发生了彻底的变化。
The World’s Columbian Exposition that year trumpeted the city’s progress and broader technological progress, with typical Gilded Age ostentation.
那一年的哥伦布世界博览会以典型的镀金时代的风格宣扬了这座城市的进步和更广泛的技术进步。
A huge, gleaming (but temporary) “White City” was built in neoclassical style to house all the features of the fair and cater to the needs of the visitors who arrived from all over the world.
一座巨大的、闪闪发光的（但临时的）“白城”以新古典主义风格建造，容纳了博览会的所有特色，并满足来自世界各地的参观者的需求。
Highlighted in the title of this world’s fair were the changes that had overtaken North America since Columbus made landfall four centuries earlier.
本届世界博览会的标题强调了自四个世纪前哥伦布登陆以来北美发生的变化。
Chicago became the most important western hub and served as the gateway between the farm and ranch country of the Great Plains and eastern markets.
芝加哥成为最重要的西部枢纽，并成为大平原农场和牧场与东部市场之间的门户。
Railroads brought cattle from Texas to Chicago for slaughter, where they were then processed into packaged meats and shipped by refrigerated rail to New York City and other eastern cities.
铁路将牛从德克萨斯州运往芝加哥进行屠宰，然后加工成包装肉类，并通过冷藏铁路运往纽约市和其他东部城市。
Such hubs became the central nodes in a rapid-transit economy that increasingly spread across the entire continent linking goods and people together in a new national network.
这些枢纽成为快速运输经济的中心节点，这种经济日益遍布整个大陆，在新的国家网络中将货物和人员连接在一起。
This national network created the fabled cattle drives of the 1860s and 1870s.
这个全国网络创造了 1860 年代和 1870 年代传说中的赶牛活动。
The first cattle drives across the central Plains began soon after the Civil War.
内战结束后不久，第一次穿越中原的赶牛活动就开始了。
Railroads created the market for ranching, and for the few years after the war that railroads connected eastern markets with important market hubs such as Chicago, but had yet to reach Texas ranchlands, ranchers began driving cattle north, out of the Lone Star state, to major railroad terminuses in Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska.
铁路创造了牧场市场，战后几年，铁路将东部市场与芝加哥等重要市场中心连接起来，但尚未到达德克萨斯州的牧场，牧场主开始将牛群赶出北上，离开孤星州，运往堪萨斯州、密苏里州和内布拉斯加州的主要铁路终点站。
Ranchers used well-worn trails, such as the Chisholm Trail, for drives, but conflicts arose with Native Americans in the Indian Territory and farmers in Kansas who disliked the intrusion of large and environmentally destructive herds onto their own hunting, ranching, and farming lands.
牧场主们使用奇泽姆小道等陈旧的小径进行驾车，但与印第安领地的美洲原住民和堪萨斯州的农民发生了冲突，他们不喜欢大型且破坏环境的畜群侵入他们自己的狩猎、牧场和农田。
Other trails, such as the Western Trail, the Goodnight-Loving Trail, and the Shawnee Trail, were therefore blazed.
其他步道，如西部步道、晚安步道和肖尼步道也因此被点燃。
This photochrom print (a new technology in the late nineteenth century that colorized images from a black-and-white negative) depicts a cattle round-up in Cimarron, a crossroads of the late nineteenth-century cattle drives.
这张彩色照片（十九世纪末一项新技术，将黑白底片上的图像着色）描绘了西马隆 (Cimarron) 的一场牛群围捕，这里是十九世纪末赶牛场的十字路口。
Detroit Photographic Co., “Colorado.
底特律摄影公司，“科罗拉多州。
‘Round up’ on the Cimarron,” c.
在西马龙号上‘围捕’，”c.
1898.
1898.
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
Cattle drives were difficult tasks for the crews of men who managed the herds.
对于管理牛群的人来说，赶牛是一项艰巨的任务。
Historians estimate the number of men who worked as cowboys in the late-nineteenth century to be between twelve thousand and forty thousand.
历史学家估计十九世纪末从事牛仔工作的人数在一万二千到四万人之间。
Perhaps a fourth were African American, and more were likely Mexican or Mexican American.
也许四分之一是非裔美国人，更多的人可能是墨西哥人或墨西哥裔美国人。
Much about the American cowboys evolved from Mexican vaqueros : cowboys adopted Mexican practices, gear, and terms such as rodeo , bronco , and lasso .”
美国牛仔在很大程度上是从墨西哥牛仔演变而来的：牛仔采用了墨西哥的做法、装备和术语，如牛仔竞技、野马和套索。
While most cattle drivers were men, there are at least sixteen verifiable accounts of women participating in the drives.
虽然大多数赶牛人都是男性，但至少有 16 个可核实的记录表明女性参与了赶牛活动。
Some, like Molly Dyer Goodnight, accompanied their husbands.
有些人，比如莫莉·戴尔·古德奈特，陪伴着她们的丈夫。
Others, like Lizzie Johnson Williams, helped drive their own herds.
其他人，比如莉齐·约翰逊·威廉姆斯，则帮助驱赶自己的牛群。
Williams made at least three known trips with her herds up the Chisholm Trail.
威廉姆斯带着她的牛群沿着奇泽姆小道进行了至少三次已知的旅行。
Many cowboys hoped one day to become ranch owners themselves, but employment was insecure and wages were low.
许多牛仔希望有一天自己成为牧场主，但就业不稳定且工资很低。
Beginners could expect to earn around $20–$25 per month, and those with years of experience might earn $40–$45.
初学者预计每月收入约为 20-25 美元，而拥有多年经验的人可能每月收入 40-45 美元。
Trail bosses could earn over $50 per month.
步道老板每月的收入可以超过 50 美元。
And it was tough work.
这是一项艰苦的工作。
On a cattle drive, cowboys worked long hours and faced extremes of heat and cold and intense blowing dust.
在赶牛的过程中，牛仔们要长时间工作，还要面对极端的酷热、严寒和猛烈的扬尘。
They subsisted on limited diets with irregular supplies.
他们的饮食有限，供应不规律。
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Cowboys like the one pictured here worked the drives that supplied Chicago and other mid-western cities with the necessary cattle to supply and help grow the meat-packing industry.
像图中所示的牛仔们在为芝加哥和其他中西部城市提供必要的牛群的驱动器上工作，以供应和帮助发展肉类包装业。
Their work was obsolete by the turn of the century, yet their image lived on through vaudeville shows and films that romanticized life in the West.
他们的作品在世纪之交已经过时，但他们的形象通过歌舞杂耍表演和电影而得以延续，使西方生活浪漫化。
John C.H.
约翰·C.H.
Grabill, “The Cow Boy,” c.
格拉比尔，《牧牛男孩》，c。
1888.
1888.
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
But if workers of cattle earned low wages, owners and investors could receive riches.
但如果养牛工人的工资很低，业主和投资者就可以获得财富。
At the end of the Civil War, a steer worth $4 in Texas could fetch $40 in Kansas.
内战结束时，一头在德克萨斯州价值 4 美元的小公牛在堪萨斯州可以卖到 40 美元。
Although profits slowly leveled off, large profits could still be made.
尽管利润慢慢趋于平稳，但仍然可以赚取大量利润。
And yet, by the 1880s, the great cattle drives were largely done.
然而，到了 1880 年代，大规模的赶牛活动已基本完成。
The railroads had created them, and the railroads ended them: railroad lines pushed into Texas and made the great drives obsolete.
铁路创造了它们，铁路又终结了它们：铁路线延伸到德克萨斯州，使大型汽车变得过时。
But ranching still brought profits and the Plains were better suited for grazing than for agriculture, and western ranchers continued supplying beef for national markets.
但牧场仍然带来利润，平原比农业更适合放牧，西部牧场主继续为全国市场供应牛肉。
Ranching was just one of many western industries that depended on the railroads.
牧场只是西方众多依赖铁路的产业之一。
By linking the Plains with national markets and rapidly moving people and goods, the railroads made the modern American West.
通过将平原与全国市场连接起来并快速移动人员和货物，铁路创造了现代美国西部。
As the rails moved into the West, and more and more Americans followed, the situation for Native groups deteriorated even further.
随着铁路进入西部，越来越多的美国人跟随，原住民群体的处境进一步恶化。
Treaties negotiated between the United States and Native groups had typically promised that if tribes agreed to move to specific reservation lands, they would hold those lands collectively.
美国和土著群体之间谈判达成的条约通常承诺，如果部落同意迁移到特定的保留地，他们将集体拥有这些土地。
But as American westward migration mounted and open lands closed, white settlers began to argue that Native people had more than their fair share of land, that the reservations were too big, that Native people were using the land “inefficiently,” and that they still preferred nomadic hunting instead of intensive farming and ranching.
但随着美国向西移民的增加和开放土地的关闭，白人定居者开始争辩说，原住民拥有的土地超出了他们应得的份额，保留地太大，原住民“效率低下”使用土地，而且他们仍然更喜欢游牧狩猎而不是集约化农业和牧场。
By the 1880s, Americans increasingly championed legislation to allow the transfer of Indigenous lands to farmers and ranchers, while many argued that allotting land to individual Native Americans, rather than to tribes, would encourage American-style agriculture and finally put Indigenous peoples who had previously resisted the efforts of missionaries and federal officials on the path to “civilization.”
到了 1880 年代，美国人越来越多地支持立法，允许将原住民土地转让给农民和牧场主，而许多人认为，将土地分配给个别美洲原住民而不是部落，将鼓励美国式农业，并最终使先前抵制传教士和联邦官员努力的原住民走上“文明”之路。
Passed by Congress on February 8, 1887, the Dawes General Allotment Act splintered Native American reservations into individual family homesteads.
1887 年 2 月 8 日，国会通过了《道斯一般分配法案》，将美洲原住民的保留地分割成各个家庭的宅基地。
Each head of a Native family was to be allotted 160 acres, the typical size of a claim that any settler could establish on federal lands under the provisions of the Homestead Act.
每个原住民家庭的户主将被分配 160 英亩的土地，这是任何定居者根据《宅地法》的规定都可以在联邦土地上建立的领地的典型规模。
Single individuals over age eighteen would receive an eighty-acre allotment, and orphaned children received forty acres.
十八岁以上的单身人士将获得八十英亩的土地，孤儿则获得四十英亩的土地。
A four-year timeline was established for Indigenous peoples to make their allotment selections.
为原住民做出分配选择制定了四年的时间表。
If at the end of that time no selection had been made, the act authorized the secretary of the interior to appoint an agent to make selections for the remaining tribal members.
如果在那段时间结束时没有做出选择，该法案授权内政部长任命一名代理人来选择剩余的部落成员。
Allegedly to protect Native Americans from being swindled by unscrupulous land speculators, all allotments were to be held in trust—they could not be sold by allottees—for twenty-five years.
据称，为了保护美洲原住民免遭肆无忌惮的土地投机者的欺骗，所有分配的土地都将被托管——分配者不得出售——二十五年。
Lands that remained unclaimed by tribal members after allotment would revert to federal control and be sold to American settlers.
分配后仍未被部落成员认领的土地将恢复联邦控制并出售给美国定居者。
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Red Cloud and American Horse – two of the most renowned Ogala chiefs – are seen clasping hands in front of a tipi on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota.
红云和美国马——两位最著名的奥加拉酋长——在南达科他州松岭保留地的一顶帐篷前紧握双手。
Both men served as delegates to Washington, D.C., after years of actively fighting the American government.
两人在与美国政府积极对抗多年后，都曾担任驻华盛顿特区的代表。
John C.
约翰·C.
Grabill, “‘Red Cloud and American Horse.’ The two most noted chiefs now living,” 1891.
格拉比尔，“‘红云和美国马’。现在活着的两位最著名的酋长”，1891 年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
Americans touted the Dawes Act as an uplifting humanitarian reform, but it upended Native lifestyles and left Native nations without sovereignty over their lands.
美国人将《道斯法案》吹捧为一项令人振奋的人道主义改革，但它颠覆了原住民的生活方式，并使原住民国家对其土地失去了主权。
The act claimed that to protect Native property rights, it was necessary to extend “the protection of the laws of the United States .
该法案声称，为了保护原住民的财产权，有必要扩大“美国法律的保护……”。
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over the Indians.” Tribal governments and legal principles could be superseded, or dissolved and replaced, by U.S. laws.
超越印第安人。”部落政府和法律原则可以被美国法律取代、解散和取代。
Under the terms of the Dawes Act, Native nations struggled to hold on to some measure of tribal sovereignty.
根据《道斯法案》的条款，土著民族努力维持一定程度的部落主权。
The stresses of conquest unsettled generations of Native Americans.
征服的压力让几代美洲原住民感到不安。
Many took comfort from the words of prophets and holy men.
许多人从先知和圣人的话中得到安慰。
In Nevada, on January 1, 1889, Northern Paiute prophet Wovoka experienced a great revelation.
1889 年 1 月 1 日，在内华达州，北派尤特先知沃沃卡经历了一次伟大的启示。
He had traveled, he said, from his earthly home in western Nevada to heaven and returned during a solar eclipse to prophesy to his people.
他说，他从内华达州西部的尘世家乡来到天堂，并在日食期间返回，向他的人民发出预言。
“You must not hurt anybody or do harm to anyone.
“你不能伤害任何人或伤害任何人。
You must not fight.
你们一定不能打架。
Do right always,” he allegedly exhorted.
永远做正确的事，”据称他告诫道。
And they must, he said, participate in a religious ceremony that came to be known as the Ghost Dance.
他说，他们必须参加一个后来被称为鬼舞的宗教仪式。
If the people lived justly and danced the Ghost Dance, Wovoka said, their ancestors would rise from the dead, droughts would dissipate, the whites in the West would vanish, and the buffalo would once again roam the Plains.
沃沃卡说，如果人们生活公正，跳鬼舞，他们的祖先就会复活，干旱就会消散，西部的白人就会消失，水牛就会再次在平原上漫步。
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25
Native American prophets had often confronted American imperial power.
美洲原住民的先知经常面对美国的帝国主义力量。
Some prophets, including Wovoka, incorporated Christian elements like heaven and a Messiah figure into Indigenous spiritual traditions.
包括沃沃卡在内的一些先知将天堂和弥赛亚形象等基督教元素融入了土著精神传统中。
And so, though it was far from unique, Wovoka’s prophecy nevertheless caught on quickly and spread beyond the Paiutes.
因此，尽管沃沃卡的预言远非独一无二，但它仍然很快流行起来，并传播到了帕尤特地区以外的地方。
From across the West, members of the Arapaho, Bannock, Cheyenne, and Shoshone nations, among others, adopted the Ghost Dance religion.
来自西方各地的阿拉帕霍族、班诺克族、夏安族和肖肖尼族等民族的成员都接受了鬼舞宗教。
Perhaps the most avid Ghost Dancers—and certainly the most famous—were the Lakota Sioux.
也许最狂热的幽灵舞者——当然也是最著名的——是拉科塔苏族人。
The Lakota were in dire straits.
拉科塔人陷入了困境。
South Dakota, formed out of land that belonged by treaty to the Lakota, became a state in 1889.
南达科他州由根据条约属于拉科塔人的土地组成，于 1889 年成为一个州。
White homesteaders had poured in, reservations were carved up and diminished, starvation set in, corrupt federal agents cut food rations, and drought hit the Plains.
白人自耕农涌入，保留地被瓜分和减少，饥饿开始蔓延，腐败的联邦特工削减食品配给，干旱袭击了平原。
Many Lakota feared a future as the landless subjects of a growing American empire when a delegation of eleven men, led by Kicking Bear, joined Ghost Dance pilgrims on the rails westward to Nevada and returned to spread the revival in the Dakotas.
当一个由踢熊率领的十一人代表团加入鬼舞朝圣者的行列，沿着铁路向西前往内华达州，并返回达科他州传播复兴运动时，许多拉科塔人担心未来会成为日益壮大的美利坚帝国的无土地臣民。
The energy and message of the revivals frightened settlers and Indian agents.
复兴的能量和信息吓坏了定居者和印第安特工。
Newly arrived Pine Ridge agent Daniel Royer sent fearful dispatches to Washington and the press urging a military crackdown.
新来的松岭特工丹尼尔·罗耶向华盛顿和媒体发出了令人恐惧的信件，敦促采取军事镇压。
Newspapers, meanwhile, sensationalized the Ghost Dance.
与此同时，报纸对鬼舞进行了轰动。
26 Agents began arresting Lakota leaders.
26 特工开始逮捕拉科塔领导人。
Chief Sitting Bull and several others were killed in December 1890 during a botched arrest, convincing many bands to flee the reservations to join fugitive bands farther west, where Lakota adherents of the Ghost Dance preached that the Ghost Dancers would be immune to bullets.
1890 年 12 月，坐牛酋长和其他几人在一次拙劣的逮捕中被杀，迫使许多乐队逃离保留地，加入更远西部的逃亡乐队，在那里，鬼舞的拉科塔信徒宣扬鬼舞者不会受到子弹的伤害。
Two weeks later, an American cavalry unit intercepted a band of 350 Lakota, including over 100 women and children, under Chief Spotted Elk (later known as Bigfoot) seeking refuge at the Pine Ridge Agency.
两周后，一支美国骑兵部队拦截了一支由 350 名拉科塔人组成的队伍，其中包括 100 多名妇女和儿童，他们在斑点麋鹿酋长（后来称为大脚怪）的带领下在松岭机构寻求庇护。
They were escorted to Wounded Knee Creek, where they camped for the night.
他们被护送至伤膝溪，并在那里露营过夜。
The following morning, December 29, the American cavalrymen entered the camp to disarm Spotted Elk’s band.
第二天早上，即 12 月 29 日，美国骑兵进入营地解除了斑点麋鹿乐队的武装。
Tensions flared, a shot was fired, and a skirmish became a massacre.
紧张局势加剧，一声枪响，一场小冲突演变成一场屠杀。
The Americans fired their heavy weaponry indiscriminately into the camp.
美国人不分青红皂白地向营地发射重型武器。
Two dozen cavalrymen had been killed by the Lakotas’ concealed weapons or by friendly fire, but when the guns went silent, between 150 and 300 Native men, women, and children were dead.
拉科塔人的隐蔽武器或友军火力杀死了 20 名骑兵，但当枪声平息时，有 150 至 300 名土著男女和儿童死亡。
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Burial of the dead after the massacre of Wounded Knee.
伤膝大屠杀后埋葬死者。
U.S. Soldiers putting Native Americans in common grave; some corpses are frozen in different positions.
美国士兵将美洲原住民葬入共同坟墓；有些尸体被冻结在不同的位置。
South Dakota.
南达科他州。
1891.
1891.
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
Wounded Knee marked the end of sustained, armed Native American resistance on the Plains.
受伤的膝盖标志着平原上美洲原住民持续武装抵抗的结束。
Individuals continued to resist the pressures of assimilation and preserve traditional cultural practices, but sustained military defeats, the loss of sovereignty over land and resources, and the onset of crippling poverty on the reservations marked the final decades of the nineteenth century as a particularly dark era for America’s western tribes.
人们继续抵抗同化的压力并保护传统文化习俗，但持续的军事失败、对土地和资源主权的丧失以及保留地的严重贫困标志着十九世纪最后几十年对美国西部部落来说是一个特别黑暗的时代。
But for Americans, it became mythical.
但对于美国人来说，它变成了神话。
“The American West” conjures visions of tipis, cabins, cowboys, Native Americans, farm wives in sunbonnets, and outlaws with six-shooters.
“美国西部”让人联想到圆锥形帐篷、小屋、牛仔、美洲原住民、戴着遮阳帽的农场主妇以及手持六发枪的歹徒。
Such images pervade American culture, but they are as old as the West itself: novels, rodeos, and Wild West shows mythologized the American West throughout the post–Civil War era.
这些形象遍布美国文化，但它们与西方本身一样古老：小说、牛仔竞技和狂野西部表演在整个内战后时代将美国西部神话化。
American frontierswoman and professional scout Martha Jane Canary was better known to America as Calamity Jane.
美国边疆妇女兼职业侦察员玛莎·简·卡纳利在美国更广为人知的名字是“灾难简”。
A figure in western folklore during her life and after, Calamity Jane was a central character in many of the increasingly popular novels and films that romanticized western life in the twentieth century.
灾难简生前和死后都是西方民间传说中的人物，她是许多日益流行的小说和电影的中心人物，这些小说和电影使二十世纪的西方生活浪漫化。
“[Martha Canary, 1852-1903, (“Calamity Jane”), full-length portrait, seated with rifle as General Crook’s scout],” c.
“[玛莎·金丝雀，1852-1903 年，（“灾难简”），全身肖像，手持步枪，作为克鲁克将军的侦察兵]，c。
1895.
1895年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
William Frederick “Buffalo Bill” Cody helped commercialize the cowboy lifestyle, building a mythology around life in the Old West that produced big bucks for men like Cody.
威廉·弗雷德里克·“水牛比尔”·科迪帮助将牛仔生活方式商业化，围绕旧西部的生活建立了一个神话，为像科迪这样的人带来了巨额收入。
Courier Lithography Company, “’Buffalo Bill’ Cody,” 1900.
信使平版印刷公司，《‘水牛比尔’科迪》，1900 年。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
Buffalo Bill, joined by shrewd business partners skilled in marketing, turned his shows into a sensation.
布法罗·比尔 (Buffalo Bill) 与精通营销的精明商业伙伴一起，使他的演出轰动一时。
But he was not alone.
但他并不孤单。
Gordon William “Pawnee Bill” Lillie, another popular Wild West showman, got his start in 1886 when Cody employed him as an interpreter for Pawnee members of the show.
戈登·威廉·“波尼·比尔”·莉莉是另一位颇受欢迎的狂野西部表演者，他的职业生涯始于 1886 年，当时科迪雇用他为剧中波尼族成员担任翻译。
Lillie went on to create his own production in 1888, “Pawnee Bill’s Historic Wild West.” He was Cody’s only real competitor in the business until 1908, when the two men combined their shows to create a new extravaganza, “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West and Pawnee Bill’s Great Far East” (most people called it the “Two Bills Show”).
1888 年，莉莉继续创作自己的作品《波尼·比尔的历史狂野西部》。他是科迪在这个行业中唯一真正的竞争对手，直到 1908 年，两人将他们的表演结合起来，创造了一场新的盛宴，“布法罗比尔的狂野西部和波尼比尔的远东”（大多数人称之为“两张钞票秀”）。
It was an unparalleled spectacle.
这是一场无与伦比的奇观。
The cast included American cowboys, Mexican vaqueros , Native Americans, Russian Cossacks, Japanese acrobats, and an Australian aboriginal.
演员包括美国牛仔、墨西哥牛仔、美洲原住民、俄罗斯哥萨克、日本杂技演员和澳大利亚原住民。
Cody and Lillie knew that Native Americans fascinated audiences in the United States and Europe, and both featured them prominently in their Wild West shows.
科迪和莉莉知道美洲原住民令美国和欧洲的观众着迷，因此他们都在狂野西部节目中以他们为主角。
Most Americans believed that Native cultures were disappearing or had already, and felt a sense of urgency to see their dances, hear their song, and be captivated by their bareback riding skills and their elaborate buckskin and feather attire.
大多数美国人认为原住民文化正在消失或已经消失，并且迫切希望看到他们的舞蹈，听到他们的歌曲，并被他们的无鞍骑马技巧和精致的鹿皮和羽毛服装所吸引。
The shows certainly veiled the true cultural and historic value of so many Native demonstrations, and the Native performers were curiosities to white Americans, but the shows were one of the few ways for many Native Americans to make a living in the late nineteenth century.
这些表演当然掩盖了如此多的原住民示威活动的真正文化和历史价值，而且原住民表演者对美国白人来说是好奇的，但这些表演是十九世纪末许多美国原住民谋生的少数方式之一。
In an attempt to appeal to women, Cody recruited Annie Oakley, a female sharpshooter who thrilled onlookers with her many stunts.
为了吸引女性，科迪招募了安妮·奥克利，一位女神枪手，她的许多特技让旁观者兴奋不已。
Billed as “Little Sure Shot,” she shot apples off her poodle’s head and the ash from her husband’s cigar, clenched trustingly between his teeth.
她被称为“小准一击”，她射掉了贵宾犬头上的苹果和她丈夫的雪茄烟灰，而他的雪茄则信任地咬在他的牙齿之间。
Gordon Lillie’s wife, May Manning Lillie, also became a skilled shot and performed as “World’s Greatest Lady Horseback Shot.” Female sharpshooters were Wild West show staples.
戈登·莉莉 (Gordon Lillie) 的妻子梅·曼宁·莉莉 (May Manning Lillie) 也成为一名熟练的射击手，被誉为“世界上最伟大的女士马背射击”。女神枪手是狂野西部秀的主角。
As many as eighty toured the country at the shows’ peak.
在演出高峰期，有多达八十人在全国巡演。
But if such acts challenged expected Victorian gender roles, female performers were typically careful to blunt criticism by maintaining their feminine identity—for example, by riding sidesaddle and wearing full skirts and corsets—during their acts.
但如果此类行为挑战了维多利亚时代的性别角色，女性表演者通常会在表演过程中通过保持女性身份（例如骑侧鞍、穿着长裙和紧身胸衣）来小心地平息批评。
The western “cowboys and Indians” mystique, perpetuated in novels, rodeos, and Wild West shows, was rooted in romantic nostalgia and, perhaps, in the anxieties that many felt in the late nineteenth century’s new seemingly “soft” industrial world of factory and office work.
西部“牛仔和印第安人”的神秘感在小说、竞技表演和狂野西部表演中得以延续，其根源在于浪漫的怀旧情绪，或许也源于许多人对十九世纪末由工厂和办公室工作组成的看似“软”的新工业世界的焦虑。
The mythical cowboy’s “aggressive masculinity” was the seemingly perfect antidote for middle- and upper-class, city-dwelling Americans who feared they “had become over-civilized” and longed for what Theodore Roosevelt called the “strenuous life.” Roosevelt himself, a scion of a wealthy New York family and later a popular American president, turned a brief tenure as a failed Dakota ranch owner into a potent part of his political image.
对于那些担心自己“变得过于文明”并渴望西奥多·罗斯福所说的“艰苦生活”的城市中的中上层美国人来说，神话般的牛仔的“咄咄逼人的男子气概”似乎是一剂完美的解毒剂。罗斯福本人是纽约一个富裕家庭的后裔，后来成为一位受欢迎的美国总统，他将达科他州失败的牧场主的短暂任期变成了他政治形象的重要组成部分。
Americans looked longingly to the West, whose romance would continue to pull at generations of Americans.
美国人向往西方，西方的浪漫故事将继续吸引着几代美国人。
American anthropologist and ethnographer Frances Densmore records the Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief in 1916 for the Bureau of American Ethnology.
美国人类学家和民族志学家弗朗西斯·登斯莫尔 (Frances Densmore) 于 1916 年为美国民族学局记录了黑脚族酋长山地酋长。
Library of Congress.
国会图书馆。
In 1893, the American Historical Association met during that year’s World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
1893 年，美国历史协会在芝加哥举行的世界哥伦布博览会期间召开了会议。
The young Wisconsin historian Frederick Jackson Turner presented his “frontier thesis,” one of the most influential theories of American history, in his essay “The Significance of the Frontier in American History.”
年轻的威斯康星州历史学家弗雷德里克·杰克逊·特纳在其论文《美国历史中边境的意义》中提出了他的“边境论文”，这是美国历史上最有影响力的理论之一。
Turner looked back at the historical changes in the West and saw, instead of a tsunami of war and plunder and industry, waves of “civilization” that washed across the continent.
特纳回顾西方的历史变迁，看到的不是战争、掠夺和工业的海啸，而是席卷整个大陆的“文明”浪潮。
A frontier line “between savagery and civilization” had moved west from the earliest English settlements in Massachusetts and Virginia across the Appalachians to the Mississippi and finally across the Plains to California and Oregon.
一条“野蛮与文明之间”的边界线从英国最早在马萨诸塞州和弗吉尼亚州的定居点向西移动，越过阿巴拉契亚山脉到达密西西比河，最后穿过平原到达加利福尼亚州和俄勒冈州。
Turner invited his audience to “stand at Cumberland Gap [the famous pass through the Appalachian Mountains], and watch the procession of civilization, marching single file—the buffalo following the trail to the salt springs, the Native American, the fur trader and hunter, the cattle-raiser, the pioneer farmer—and the frontier has passed by.” 29
特纳邀请观众“站在坎伯兰峡（穿过阿巴拉契亚山脉的著名通道），观看文明的游行，排成一队——水牛沿着小路走向盐泉、美洲原住民、毛皮商人和猎人、养牛者、先驱农民——而边境已经过去了。” 29
Americans, Turner said, had been forced by necessity to build a rough-hewn civilization out of the frontier, giving the nation its exceptional hustle and its democratic spirit and distinguishing North America from the stale monarchies of Europe.
特纳说，美国人被迫在边境之外建立一种粗糙的文明，赋予这个国家非凡的喧嚣和民主精神，并将北美与欧洲陈旧的君主制区分开来。
Moreover, the style of history Turner called for was democratic as well, arguing that the work of ordinary people (in this case, pioneers) deserved the same study as that of great statesmen.
此外，特纳所提倡的历史风格也是民主的，他认为普通人（在这种情况下是先驱者）的工作值得与伟大政治家的工作进行同样的研究。
Such was a novel approach in 1893.
这在 1893 年是一种新颖的方法。
But Turner looked ominously to the future.
但特纳对未来充满了不祥的目光。
The Census Bureau in 1890 had declared the frontier closed.
1890 年，人口普查局宣布边境关闭。
There was no longer a discernible line running north to south that, Turner said, any longer divided civilization from savagery.
特纳说，从北到南不再有一条明显的界限将文明与野蛮区分开来。
Turner worried for the United States’ future: what would become of the nation without the safety valve of the frontier?
特纳对美国的未来感到担忧：如果没有边境安全阀，这个国家将会变成什么样子？
It was a common sentiment.
这是一种普遍的情绪。
Theodore Roosevelt wrote to Turner that his essay “put into shape a good deal of thought that has been floating around rather loosely.” 30
西奥多·罗斯福写信给特纳，称他的文章“形成了许多一直相当松散地流传的思想”。 30
The history of the West was made by many persons and peoples.
西方的历史是由许多个人和民族创造的。
Turner’s thesis was rife with faults, not only in its bald Anglo-Saxon chauvinism—in which nonwhites fell before the march of “civilization” and Chinese and Mexican immigrants were invisible—but in its utter inability to appreciate the impact of technology and government subsidies and large-scale economic enterprises alongside the work of hardy pioneers.
特纳的论文充满了错误，不仅在于其赤裸裸的盎格鲁-撒克逊沙文主义——其中非白人在“文明”的大军面前倒下，中国和墨西哥移民被忽视——而且在于它完全无法认识到技术、政府补贴、大型经济企业以及顽强的先驱者的工作所带来的影响。
Still, Turner’s thesis held an almost canonical position among historians for much of the twentieth century and, more importantly, captured Americans’ enduring romanticization of the West and the simplification of a long and complicated story into a march of progress.
尽管如此，特纳的论文在二十世纪的大部分时间里在历史学家中占据了近乎经典的地位，更重要的是，它抓住了美国人对西方持久的浪漫化以及将一个漫长而复杂的故事简化为进步的过程。
A branch of the Nez Percé tribe, from the Pacific Northwest, refused to be moved to a reservation and attempted to flee to Canada but were pursued by the U.S. Cavalry, attacked, and forced to return.
来自太平洋西北部的内兹佩尔塞部落的一个分支拒绝转移到保留地并试图逃往加拿大，但遭到美国骑兵的追击和攻击，并被迫返回。
The following is a transcript of Chief Joseph’s surrender, as recorded by Lieutenant Wood, Twenty-first Infantry, acting aide-de-camp and acting adjutant-general to General Oliver O.
以下是约瑟夫酋长投降的文字记录，由奥利弗·O·将军的代理副官兼代理副官、第二十一步兵团伍德中尉记录。
Howard, in 1877.
霍华德，1877 年。
2.
2.
William T.
威廉·T.
Hornaday on the Extermination of the American Bison (1889)
霍纳迪论美洲野牛灭绝 (1889)
William T.
威廉·T.
Hornaday, Superintendent of the National Zoological Park, wrote a detailed account of the near-extinction of the American bison in the late-nineteenth century.
国家动物园园长霍纳迪详细描述了 19 世纪末美洲野牛濒临灭绝的情况。
The following is extracted from President Chester A.
以下内容摘自切斯特 A 总统。
Arthur’s First Annual Message to Congress, delivered December 6, 1881.
亚瑟于 1881 年 12 月 6 日向国会发表的第一份年度致辞。
4.
4.
Frederick Jackson Turner, “Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893)
弗雷德里克·杰克逊·特纳，《美国历史上边境的意义》（1893）
Perhaps the most influential essay by an American historian, Frederick Jackson Turner’s address to the American Historical Association on “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” defined for many Americans the relationship between the frontier and American culture and contemplated what might follow “the closing of the frontier.”
也许是美国历史学家最具影响力的文章，弗雷德里克·杰克逊·特纳在美国历史协会发表的题为“边境在美国历史中的意义”的演讲，为许多美国人定义了边境与美国文化之间的关系，并思考了“边境关闭”之后可能发生的事情。
5.
5.
Turning Hawk and American Horse on the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890/1891)
鹰与美国马在伤膝大屠杀中的表现（1890/1891）
On February 11, 1891, a Sioux delegation met with the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in Washington D.C. and gave their account of the Wounded Knee Massacre six weeks prior.
1891 年 2 月 11 日，苏族代表团在华盛顿特区会见了印第安事务专员，并讲述了六周前发生的伤膝大屠杀。
The United States used education to culturally assimilate Native Americans.
美国利用教育在文化上同化美洲原住民。
Laura Cornelius Kellogg, an Oneida author, performer, and activist who helped found the Society of American Indians (SAI) in 1913, criticized the cultural chauvinism of American policy.
劳拉·科尼利厄斯·凯洛格 (Laura Cornelius Kellogg) 是一位奥奈达作家、表演者和活动家，她于 1913 年帮助创立了美洲印第安人协会 (SAI)，她批评了美国政策中的文化沙文主义。
Speaking to the SAI, she challenged her Indian audience to embrace modern American democracy while maintaining their own identity.
她在接受 SAI 采访时向印度观众提出挑战，要求他们拥抱现代美国民主，同时保持自己的身份。
In 1881, Helen Hunt Jackson published A Century of Dishonor, a history of the injustices visited upon Native Americans.
1881 年，海伦·亨特·杰克逊出版了《百年耻辱》，讲述了美洲原住民所遭受的不公正待遇的历史。
Exposing the many wrongs perpetrated by her country, she hoped “to redeem the name of the United States from the stain of a century of dishonor.”
她揭露了她的国家犯下的许多错误，希望“将美国的名字从一个世纪的耻辱污点中拯救出来”。
Tom Torlino, a member of the Navajo Nation, entered the Carlisle Indian School, a Native American boarding school founded by the United States government in 1879, on October 21, 1882 and departed on August 28, 1886.
汤姆·托利诺 (Tom Torlino) 是纳瓦霍族成员，于 1882 年 10 月 21 日进入卡莱尔印第安学校 (Carlisle Indian School)，这是一所由美国政府于 1879 年创办的美国原住民寄宿学校，并于 1886 年 8 月 28 日离开。
Torlino’s student file contained photographs from 1882 and 1885.
托利诺的学生档案包含 1882 年和 1885 年的照片。
American anthropologist and ethnographer Frances Densmore records the Blackfoot chief Mountain Chief in 1916 for the Bureau of American Ethnology.
美国人类学家和民族志学家弗朗西斯·登斯莫尔 (Frances Densmore) 于 1916 年为美国民族学局记录了黑脚族酋长山地酋长。
This chapter was edited by Lauren Brand, with content contributions by Lauren Brand, Carole Butcher, Josh Garrett-Davis, Tracey Hanshew, Lindsay Stallones Marshall, Nick Roland, David Schley, Emma Teitelman, and Alyce Webb.
本章由 Lauren Brand 编辑，内容由 Lauren Brand、Carole Butcher、Josh Garrett-Davis、Tracey Hanshew、Lindsay Stallones Marshall、Nick Roland、David Schley、Emma Teitelman 和 Alyce Webb 贡献。
Recommended citation: Lauren Brand et al., “Conquering the West,” Lauren Brand, ed., in The American Yawp , eds.
推荐引用：劳伦·布兰德 (Lauren Brand) 等人，“征服西方”，劳伦·布兰德 (Lauren Brand) 编辑，载于 The American Yawp 编辑。
Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
约瑟夫·洛克和本·赖特（加利福尼亚州斯坦福：斯坦福大学出版社，2018 年）。