The American Yawp
Collecting the Dead.
收集死者。
Cold Harbor, Virginia.
弗吉尼亚州冷港。
April, 1865.
1865 年 4 月。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
* NOTE: You are viewing a chapter from the archived, “First Edition” version of the American Yawp, which stopped receiving updates in spring 2026.
* 注意：您正在查看《American Yawp》存档的“第一版”版本中的章节，该版本已于 2026 年春季停止接收更新。
Click here to access the current, updated edition *
单击此处访问当前的更新版本*
The American Civil War, the bloodiest in the nation’s history, resulted in approximately 750,000 deaths.
美国内战是美国历史上最血腥的战争，造成约 75 万人死亡。
1 The war touched the life of nearly every American as military mobilization reached levels never seen before or since.
1 战争影响了几乎每个美国人的生活，军事动员达到了前所未有的水平。
Most northern soldiers went to war to preserve the Union, but the war ultimately transformed into a struggle to eradicate slavery.
大多数北方士兵参战是为了维护联邦，但战争最终演变成一场根除奴隶制的斗争。
African Americans, both enslaved and free, pressed the issue of emancipation and nurtured this transformation.
非裔美国人，无论是被奴役的还是自由的，都在推动解放问题并促进了这一转变。
Simultaneously, women thrust themselves into critical wartime roles while navigating a world without many men of military age.
与此同时，女性在战时扮演着关键的角色，同时在一个没有很多军事适龄男性的世界中航行。
The Civil War was a defining event in the history of the United States and, for the Americans thrust into it, a wrenching one.
内战是美国历史上的一个决定性事件，对于卷入这场战争的美国人来说，这是一场痛苦的战争。
The 1860 presidential election was chaotic.
1860年的总统选举是混乱的。
In April, the Democratic Party convened in Charleston, South Carolina, the bastion of secessionist thought in the South.
4月，民主党在南卡罗来纳州查尔斯顿召开会议，这里是南方分离主义思想的堡垒。
The goal was to nominate a candidate for the party ticket, but the party was deeply divided.
目标是提名一位党内候选人，但党内分歧严重。
Northern Democrats pulled for Senator Stephen Douglas, a champion of popular sovereignty, while southern Democrats were intent on endorsing someone other than Douglas.
北方民主党人支持人民主权倡导者斯蒂芬·道格拉斯参议员，而南方民主党人则打算支持道格拉斯以外的人。
The parties leaders’ refusal to include a pro-slavery platform resulted in southern delegates walking out of the convention, preventing Douglas from gaining the two-thirds majority required for a nomination.
各党领导人拒绝加入支持奴隶制的纲领，导致南方代表退出大会，导致道格拉斯无法获得提名所需的三分之二多数票。
The Democrats ended up with two presidential candidates.
民主党最终选出了两名总统候选人。
A subsequent convention in Baltimore nominated Douglas, while southerners nominated the current vice president, John C.
随后在巴尔的摩举行的一次大会提名了道格拉斯，而南方人则提名了现任副总统约翰·C·肯尼迪。
Breckinridge of Kentucky, as their presidential candidate.
肯塔基州的布雷肯里奇，作为他们的总统候选人。
The nation’s oldest party had split over differences in policy toward slavery.
这个国家最古老的政党因奴隶制政策的分歧而分裂。
2
2
Initially, the Republicans were hardly unified around a single candidate themselves.
最初，共和党人很难团结在一个候选人周围。
Several leading Republican men vied for their party’s nomination.
几位共和党领导人竞相争夺党内提名。
A consensus emerged at the May 1860 convention that the party’s nominee would need to carry all the free states—for only in that situation could a Republican nominee potentially win.
1860 年 5 月的大会上达成了共识，即该党的提名人需要获得所有自由州的支持，因为只有在这种情况下，共和党提名人才有可能获胜。
New York Senator William Seward, a leading contender, was passed over.
纽约州参议员威廉·苏厄德（William Seward）是主要的竞争者，但被排除在外。
Seward’s pro-immigrant position posed a potential obstacle, particularly in Pennsylvania and New Jersey.
苏厄德的支持移民立场构成了潜在的障碍，特别是在宾夕法尼亚州和新泽西州。
Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, as a relatively unknown but likable politician, rose from a pool of potential candidates and was selected by the delegates on the third ballot.
伊利诺伊州的亚伯拉罕·林肯作为一位相对不知名但讨人喜欢的政治家，从众多潜在候选人中脱颖而出，并在第三轮投票中被代表们选中。
The electoral landscape was further complicated through the emergence of a fourth candidate, Tennessee’s John Bell, heading the Constitutional Union Party.
第四位候选人、田纳西州的约翰·贝尔（John Bell）领导宪法联盟党，选举形势变得更加复杂。
The Constitutional Unionists, composed of former Whigs who teamed up with some southern Democrats, made it their mission to avoid the specter of secession while doing little else to address the issues tearing the country apart.
宪法统一主义者由前辉格党人组成，他们与一些南方民主党人合作，他们的使命是避免分裂的幽灵，同时几乎不采取任何其他行动来解决分裂国家的问题。
Abraham Lincoln’s nomination proved a great windfall for the Republican Party.
亚伯拉罕·林肯的提名对共和党来说是一笔巨大的意外之财。
Lincoln carried all free states with the exception of New Jersey (which he split with Douglas).
林肯控制了除新泽西州（他与道格拉斯分割）之外的所有自由州。
Of the voting electorate, 81.2 percent came out to vote—at that point the highest ever for a presidential election.
在投票的选民中，81.2% 的人出来投票——这是有史以来总统选举的最高比例。
Lincoln received less than 40 percent of the popular vote, but with the field so split, that percentage yielded 180 electoral votes.
林肯获得了不到 40% 的普选票，但由于选民的分歧如此之大，这个百分比产生了 180 张选举人票。
Lincoln was trailed by Breckinridge with his 72 electoral votes, carrying eleven of the fifteen slave states; Bell came in third with 39 electoral votes; and Douglas came in last, only able to garner 12 electoral votes despite carrying almost 30 percent of the popular vote.
林肯以 72 张选举人票落后于布雷肯里奇，在 15 个蓄奴州中赢得了 11 个。贝尔以39张选举人票位居第三；道格拉斯排名垫底，尽管拥有近30%的普选票，但仅获得12张选举人票。
Since the Republican platform prohibited the expansion of slavery in future western states, all future Confederate states, with the exception of Virginia, excluded Lincoln’s name from their ballots.
由于共和党纲领禁止在未来的西部各州扩大奴隶制，因此除弗吉尼亚州外，所有未来的邦联州都将林肯的名字排除在选票之外。
3
3
The election of Lincoln and the perceived threat to the institution of slavery proved too much for the deep southern states.
事实证明，林肯的当选和对奴隶制的威胁对南方各州来说是难以承受的。
South Carolina acted almost immediately, calling a convention to declare secession.
南卡罗来纳州几乎立即采取行动，召开大会宣布脱离联邦。
On December 20, 1860, the South Carolina convention voted unanimously 169–0 to dissolve their union with the United States.
1860 年 12 月 20 日，南卡罗来纳州代表大会以 169 比 0 一致投票决定解散与美国的联盟。
4 The other states across the Deep South quickly followed suit.
4 南方腹地的其他州也迅速效仿。
Mississippi adopted their own resolution on January 9, 1861, Florida followed on January 10, Alabama on January 11, Georgia on January 19, Louisiana on January 26, and Texas on February 1.
密西西比州于 1861 年 1 月 9 日通过了自己的决议，佛罗里达州于 1 月 10 日通过，阿拉巴马州于 1 月 11 日通过，佐治亚州于 1 月 19 日通过，路易斯安那州于 1 月 26 日通过，德克萨斯州于 2 月 1 日通过。
Texas was the only state to put the issue up for a popular vote, but secession was widely popular throughout the South.
德克萨斯州是唯一将这一问题提交全民投票的州，但分裂国家在整个南方广泛流行。
Confederates quickly shed their American identity and adopted a new Confederate nationalism.
南方邦联很快就摆脱了美国身份，并采用了新的南方邦联民族主义。
Confederate nationalism was based on several ideals, foremost among these being slavery.
邦联民族主义基于几个理想，其中最重要的是奴隶制。
As Confederate vice president Alexander Stephens stated, the Confederacy’s “foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery .
正如邦联副总统亚历山大·斯蒂芬斯所说，邦联的“基础和基石是建立在黑人与白人不平等的伟大真理之上的；奴隶制……”
.
。
.
。
is his natural and normal condition.” 5 The election of Lincoln in 1860 demonstrated that the South was politically overwhelmed.
这是他自然而正常的状态。” 5 1860 年林肯的当选表明南方在政治上已经不堪重负。
Slavery was omnipresent in the prewar South, and it served as the most common frame of reference for unequal power.
奴隶制在战前的南方无处不在，它是不平等权力最常见的参照系。
To a southern man, there was no fate more terrifying than the thought of being reduced to the level of a slave.
对于南方人来说，没有什么比沦为奴隶更可怕的命运了。
Religion likewise shaped Confederate nationalism, as southerners believed that the Confederacy was fulfilling God’s will.
宗教同样塑造了南部邦联的民族主义，因为南方人相信南部邦联正在履行上帝的旨意。
The Confederacy even veered from the American constitution by explicitly invoking Christianity in their founding document.
南部邦联甚至在其建国文件中明确援引基督教，从而背离了美国宪法。
Yet in every case, all rationale for secession could be thoroughly tied to slavery.
然而，在任何情况下，所有分裂国家的理由都可能与奴隶制完全联系在一起。
“Our position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery—the greatest material interest of the world,” proclaimed the Mississippi statement of secession.
密西西比州的分裂声明宣称：“我们的立场完全认同奴隶制——世界上最大的物质利益。”
6 Thus for the original seven Confederate states (and the four that would subsequently join), slavery’s existence was the essential core of the fledging Confederacy.
6 因此，对于最初的七个邦联州（以及随后加入的四个邦联州）来说，奴隶制的存在是新兴邦联的核心。
The emblems of nationalism on this currency reveal much about the ideology underpinning the Confederacy: George Washington standing stately in a Roman toga indicates the belief in the South’s honorable and aristocratic past; John C.
这种货币上的民族主义标志很大程度上揭示了支撑南方邦联的意识形态：乔治·华盛顿身着罗马长袍庄严地站立，表明了对南方光荣和贵族过去的信仰；约翰·C.
Calhoun’s portrait emphasizes the Confederate argument of the importance of states’ rights; and, most importantly, the image of African Americans working in fields demonstrates slavery’s position as foundational to the Confederacy.
卡尔霍恩的肖像强调了邦联关于各州权利重要性的论点；最重要的是，非裔美国人在田间劳作的形象表明了奴隶制作为邦联基础的地位。
A five and one hundred dollar Confederate States of America interest-bearing banknote, c.
一张五美元和一百美元的美利坚联盟国有息纸币，c。
1861 and 1862.
1861 年和 1862 年。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
Not all southerners participated in Confederate nationalism.
并非所有南方人都参与了南部邦联的民族主义。
Unionist southerners, most common in the upcountry where slavery was weakest, retained their loyalty to the Union.
南方联邦主义者在奴隶制最弱的内陆地区最为常见，他们保留了对联邦的忠诚。
These southerners joined the Union army, that is, the army of the United States of America, and worked to defeat the Confederacy.
这些南方人加入了联邦军队，即美利坚合众国的军队，并致力于击败南部邦联。
7 Black southerners, most of whom were enslaved, overwhelmingly supported the Union, often running away from plantations and forcing the Union army to reckon with slavery.
7 南方黑人绝大多数是奴隶，他们绝大多数支持联邦，经常逃离种植园，迫使联邦军队正视奴隶制问题。
8
8
President James Buchanan would not directly address the issue of secession prior to his term’s end in early March.
詹姆斯·布坎南总统不会在三月初任期结束前直接解决分裂国家问题。
Any effort to try to solve the issue therefore fell upon Congress, specifically a Committee of Thirteen including prominent men such as Stephen Douglas, William Seward, Robert Toombs, and John Crittenden.
因此，解决这一问题的一切努力都落到了国会的肩上，特别是由斯蒂芬·道格拉斯、威廉·苏厄德、罗伯特·图姆斯和约翰·克里滕登等知名人士组成的十三人委员会。
In what became known as “Crittenden’s Compromise,” Senator Crittenden proposed a series of Constitutional amendments that guaranteed slavery in southern states and territories, denied the federal government interstate slave trade regulatory power, and offered to compensate enslavers whose enslaved people had escaped.
在后来被称为“克里滕登妥协”的事件中，克里滕登参议员提出了一系列宪法修正案，保障南部各州和领地的奴隶制，否认联邦政府对州际奴隶贸易的监管权力，并提出对奴隶逃脱的奴隶主进行补偿。
The Committee of Thirteen ultimately voted down the measure, and it likewise failed in the full Senate vote (25–23).
十三人委员会最终否决了这项措施，同样在参议院全体投票中也失败了（25-23）。
Reconciliation appeared impossible.
和解似乎是不可能的。
9
9
The seven seceding states met in Montgomery, Alabama on February 4 to organize a new nation.
七个脱离联邦的州于 2 月 4 日在阿拉巴马州蒙哥马利举行会议，组建一个新国家。
The delegates selected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as president and established a capital in Montgomery, Alabama (it would move to Richmond in May).
代表们选举密西西比州的杰斐逊·戴维斯为总统，并在阿拉巴马州蒙哥马利建立首都（将于五月迁至里士满）。
Whether other states of the Upper South would join the Confederacy remained uncertain.
上南方的其他州是否会加入联邦仍不确定。
By the early spring of 1861, North Carolina and Tennessee had not held secession conventions, while voters in Virginia, Missouri, and Arkansas initially voted down secession.
到 1861 年初春，北卡罗来纳州和田纳西州尚未举行分裂国家大会，而弗吉尼亚州、密苏里州和阿肯色州的选民最初投票否决了分裂国家。
Despite this temporary boost to the Union, it became abundantly clear that these acts of loyalty in the Upper South were highly conditional and relied on a clear lack of intervention on the part of the federal government.
尽管联邦得到了暂时的推动，但很明显，上南部的这些忠诚行为是有很高条件的，并且依赖于联邦政府明显缺乏干预。
This was the precarious political situation facing Abraham Lincoln following his inauguration on March 4, 1861.
这就是亚伯拉罕·林肯 1861 年 3 月 4 日就职后所面临的不稳定的政治局势。
In his inaugural address, Lincoln declared secession “legally void.” 10 While he did not intend to invade southern states, he would use force to maintain possession of federal property within seceded states.
林肯在就职演说中宣布分裂国家“在法律上无效”。 10 虽然他无意入侵南部各州，但他会使用武力维持在脱离联邦的州内对联邦财产的占有。
Attention quickly shifted to the federal installation of Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina.
人们的注意力很快转移到南卡罗来纳州查尔斯顿的联邦设施萨姆特堡。
The fort was in need of supplies, and Lincoln intended to resupply it.
该堡垒需要补给，林肯打算重新补给。
South Carolina called for U.S. soldiers to evacuate the fort.
南卡罗来纳州呼吁美国士兵撤离该堡。
Commanding officer Major Robert Anderson refused.
指挥官罗伯特·安德森少校拒绝了。
On April 12, 1861, Confederate Brigadier General P.
1861 年 4 月 12 日，邦联准将 P.
G.
G。
T.
T。
Beauregard fired on the fort.
博勒加德向堡垒开火。
Anderson surrendered on April 13 and the Union troops evacuated.
安德森于 4 月 13 日投降，联邦军队撤离。
In response to the attack, President Abraham Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve three months to suppress the rebellion.
作为对这次袭击的回应，亚伯拉罕·林肯总统号召七万五千名志愿者服役三个月，以镇压叛乱。
The American Civil War had begun.
美国内战开始了。
Sent to then Secretary of War Simon Cameron on April 13, 1861, this telegraph announced that after “thirty hours of defending Fort Sumter, Major Robert Anderson had accepted the evacuation offered by Confederate General Beauregard.
1861 年 4 月 13 日，这封电报发送给当时的战争部长西蒙·卡梅伦，宣布在“保卫萨姆特堡三十个小时后，罗伯特·安德森少校接受了邦联将军博勒加德提出的撤离请求。
The Union had surrendered Fort Sumter, and the Civil War had officially begun.
联邦已投降萨姆特堡，内战正式开始。
“Telegram from Maj.
“来自少校的电报。
Robert Anderson to Hon.
罗伯特·安德森致阁下。
Simon Cameron, Secretary, announcing his withdrawal from Fort Sumter,” April 18, 1861; Records of the Adjutant General’s Office, 1780’s-1917; Record Group 94.
国务卿西蒙·卡梅伦宣布从萨姆特堡撤军”，1861 年 4 月 18 日；副官办公室记录，1780 年代至 1917 年；Record Group 94。
National Archives
国家档案馆
The assault on Fort Sumter and subsequent call for troops provoked several Upper South states to join the Confederacy.
对萨姆特堡的袭击和随后的军队呼吁激怒了上南部的几个州加入联邦。
In total, eleven states renounced their allegiance to the United States.
总共有十一个州放弃了对美国的效忠。
The new Confederate nation was predicated on the institution of slavery and the promotion of any and all interests that reinforced that objective.
新的邦联国家建立在奴隶制的基础上，并促进任何和所有强化这一目标的利益。
Some southerners couched their defense of slavery as a preservation of states’ rights.
一些南方人将他们对奴隶制的捍卫视为对各州权利的维护。
But in order to protect slavery, the Confederate constitution left even less power to the states than the U.S. Constitution, an irony not lost on many.
但为了保护奴隶制，南部邦联宪法赋予各州的权力甚至比美国宪法还要少，这对许多人来说是一个讽刺。
Shortly after Lincoln’s call for troops, the Union adopted General-in-Chief Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan to suppress the rebellion.
林肯征召军队后不久，联邦通过了温菲尔德·斯科特总司令的“蟒蛇计划”来镇压叛乱。
This strategy intended to strangle the Confederacy by cutting off access to coastal ports and inland waterways via a naval blockade.
这一战略旨在通过海上封锁切断沿海港口和内陆水道的通道，从而扼杀南部邦联。
Ground troops would enter the interior.
地面部队将进入内陆地区。
Like an anaconda snake, they planned to surround and squeeze the Confederacy.
他们像一条蟒蛇一样，计划包围并挤压联邦。
Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan meant to slowly squeeze the South dry of its resources, blocking all coastal ports and inland waterways to prevent the importation of goods or the export of cotton.
温菲尔德·斯科特的蟒蛇计划旨在慢慢榨干南方的资源，封锁所有沿海港口和内陆水道，以阻止货物进口或棉花出口。
This print, while poorly drawn, does a great job of making clear the Union’s plan.
这张印刷品虽然画得不好，但很好地阐明了联盟的计划。
J.B.
J.B.
Elliott, Scott’s great snake.
艾略特，斯科特的大蛇。
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1861 , 1861.
根据1861年国会法案成立，1861年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
The border states of Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky maintained geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South.
特拉华州、马里兰州、密苏里州和肯塔基州等边境州与南北双方保持着地理、社会、政治和经济联系。
All four were immediately critical to the outcome of the conflict.
这四人都对冲突的结果立即产生了至关重要的影响。
Maryland was particularly important given its position relative to Washington DC.
鉴于马里兰州相对于华盛顿特区的地位，它尤为重要。
Abraham Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus and allowed military commanders to arrest secession-friendly activists without charging them with a crime.
亚伯拉罕·林肯暂停了人身保护令，并允许军事指挥官逮捕支持分裂国家的活动人士而不指控他们犯罪。
Other border states were also important, and Lincoln famously quipped, “I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.” 11 Lincoln and his military advisors realized that the loss of the border states could mean a significant decrease in Union resources and threaten the capital in Washington.
其他边境州也很重要，林肯有一句著名的俏皮话：“我认为失去肯塔基州几乎等同于输掉整场比赛。” 11 林肯和他的军事顾问意识到，失去边境各州可能意味着联邦资源的大幅减少，并威胁到华盛顿的首都。
Consequently, Lincoln hoped to foster loyalty among their citizens, so Union forces could minimize their occupation.
因此，林肯希望培养公民的忠诚度，以便联邦军队可以最大限度地减少他们的占领。
In spite of terrible guerrilla warfare in Missouri and Kentucky, the four border states remained loyal to the Union throughout the war.
尽管密苏里州和肯塔基州发生了可怕的游击战，这四个边境州在整个战争期间仍然忠于联邦。
Foreign countries, primarily in Europe, also watched the unfolding war with deep interest.
外国，主要是欧洲国家，也饶有兴趣地关注着这场正在展开的战争。
The United States represented the greatest example of democratic thought at the time, and individuals from as far afield as Britain, France, Spain, Russia, and beyond closely followed events across the Atlantic Ocean.
美国代表了当时民主思想的最伟大典范，远至英国、法国、西班牙、俄罗斯等地的个人都密切关注着大西洋彼岸的事件。
If the democratic experiment within the United States failed, many democratic activists in Europe wondered what hope might exist for such experiments elsewhere.
如果美国境内的民主实验失败，欧洲的许多民主活动人士想知道其他地方的此类实验还有什么希望。
Conversely, those with close ties to the cotton industry watched with other concerns.
相反，那些与棉花行业关系密切的人则带着其他担忧关注着。
War meant the possibility of disrupting the cotton supply, and disruption could have catastrophic ramifications in commercial and financial markets abroad.
战争意味着棉花供应可能会中断，而中断可能会对国外的商业和金融市场造成灾难性的影响。
While Lincoln, his cabinet, and the War Department devised strategies to defeat the rebel insurrection, Black Americans quickly forced the issue of slavery as a primary issue in the debate.
当林肯、他的内阁和陆军部制定了击败叛乱的战略时，美国黑人很快就迫使奴隶制问题成为辩论中的首要问题。
As early as 1861, Black Americans implored the Lincoln administration to serve in the army and navy.
早在1861年，美国黑人就恳求林肯政府在陆军和海军服役。
12 Lincoln initially waged a conservative, limited war.
12 林肯最初发动了一场保守的、有限的战争。
He believed that the presence of African American troops would threaten the loyalty of slaveholding border states, and white volunteers might refuse to serve alongside Black men.
他认为非裔美国人军队的存在会威胁奴隶制边境州的忠诚，白人志愿者可能会拒绝与黑人并肩作战。
However, army commanders could not ignore the growing populations of formerly enslaved people who escaped to freedom behind Union army lines.
然而，军队指挥官不能忽视越来越多的以前被奴役的人逃到联邦军队后方寻求自由。
These former enslaved people took a proactive stance early in the war and forced the federal government to act.
这些前奴隶在战争初期采取了积极主动的立场，迫使联邦政府采取行动。
As the number of refugees ballooned, Lincoln and Congress found it harder to avoid the issue.
随着难民人数激增，林肯和国会发现很难回避这个问题。
13
13
In May 1861, General Benjamin F.
1861 年 5 月，本杰明·F.
Butler went over his superiors’ heads and began accepting freedom-seeking escapees who came to Fort Monroe in Virginia.
巴特勒不顾上级的同意，开始接收来到弗吉尼亚州门罗堡寻求自由的逃亡者。
In order to avoid answering whether these people were free, Butler reasoned called them “contraband of war,” and he had as much a right to seize them as he did to seize enemy horses or cannons.
为了避免回答这些人是否自由，巴特勒推理称他们为“战争违禁品”，他有权利扣押他们，就像他有权扣押敌人的马匹或大炮一样。
14 Later that summer Congress affirmed Butler’s policy in the First Confiscation Act.
14 那年夏天晚些时候，国会在《第一没收法案》中确认了巴特勒的政策。
The act left “contrabands,” as these runaways were called, in a state of limbo.
这一行为使这些逃亡者被称为“违禁品”，陷入了困境。
Once an enslaved person escaped to Union lines, their enslaver’s claim was nullified.
一旦一个被奴役的人逃到联邦防线，他们的奴隶主的要求就无效了。
She was not, however, a free citizen of the United States.
然而，她并不是美国的自由公民。
Runaways lived in “contraband camps,” where disease and malnutrition were rampant.
逃亡者生活在“走私营”中，那里疾病和营养不良猖獗。
Women and men were required to perform the drudge work of war: raising fortifications, cooking meals, and laying railroad tracks.
女人和男人都被要求从事战争中的苦差事：修建防御工事、做饭和铺设铁轨。
Still, life as a contraband offered a potential path to freedom, and thousands of enslaved people seized the opportunity.
尽管如此，作为违禁品的生活提供了一条潜在的自由之路，成千上万的被奴役者抓住了这个机会。
Enslaved African Americans who took freedom into their own hands and ran to Union lines congregated in what were called contraband camps, which existed alongside Union army camps.
被奴役的非裔美国人将自由掌握在自己手中，跑向联邦防线，聚集在所谓的违禁品营地，这些营地与联邦军营并存。
As is evident in the drawing, these were crude, disorganized, and dirty places.
从图中可以明显看出，这些地方简陋、杂乱、肮脏。
But they were still centers of freedom for those fleeing slavery.
但对于那些逃离奴隶制的人来说，它们仍然是自由中心。
Contraband camp, Richmond, Va, 1865.
走私营，弗吉尼亚州里士满，1865 年。
The Camp of the Contrabands on the Banks of the Mississippi, Fort Pickering, Memphis, Tenn, 1862.
密西西比河畔的违禁品营地，田纳西州孟菲斯皮克林堡，1862 年。
Courtesy American Antiquarian Society .
由美国古物协会提供。
Fugitives posed a dilemma for the Union military.
逃亡者给联邦军队带来了两难的境地。
Soldiers were forbidden to interfere with slavery or assist runaways, but many soldiers found such a policy unchristian.
士兵被禁止干涉奴隶制或协助逃亡者，但许多士兵认为这样的政策不符合基督教。
Even those indifferent to slavery were reluctant to turn away potential laborers or help the enemy by returning his property.
即使是那些对奴隶制漠不关心的人也不愿意拒绝潜在的劳工或通过归还敌人的财产来帮助敌人。
Also, enslaved people could provide useful information on the local terrain and the movements of Confederate troops.
此外，被奴役的人可以提供有关当地地形和南部邦联军队行动的有用信息。
Union officers became particularly reluctant to turn away freedom-seeking people when Confederate commanders began forcing enslaved laborers to work on fortifications.
当南方邦联指挥官开始强迫被奴役的劳工在防御工事上工作时，联邦军官变得特别不愿意拒绝寻求自由的人。
Every enslaved person who escaped to Union lines was a loss to the Confederate war effort.
每一个逃到联邦防线的奴隶都是南方邦联战争努力的损失。
Any hopes for a brief conflict were eradicated when Union and Confederate forces met at the Battle of Bull Run, near Manassas, Virginia.
当联邦军和南部邦联军队在弗吉尼亚州马纳萨斯附近的布尔朗战役中相遇时，任何发生短暂冲突的希望都破灭了。
While not particularly deadly, the Confederate victory proved that the Civil War would be long and costly.
虽然南方联盟的胜利并不是特别致命，但它证明内战将是漫长且代价高昂的。
Furthermore, in response to the embarrassing Union rout, Lincoln removed Brigadier General Irvin McDowell and promoted Major General George B.
此外，为了应对令人尴尬的联邦溃败，林肯解除了欧文·麦克道威尔准将的职务，并提拔了乔治·B·布什少将。
McClellan to commander of the newly formed Army of the Potomac.
麦克莱伦出任新成立的波托马克军团司令。
For nearly a year after the First Battle of Bull Run, the Eastern Theater remained relatively silent.
第一次布尔朗战役后近一年的时间里，东部战区保持着相对平静的状态。
Smaller engagements only resulted in a bloody stalemate.
较小规模的交战只会导致血腥的僵局。
Photography captured the horrors of war as never before.
摄影以前所未有的方式捕捉到了战争的恐怖。
Some Civil War photographers arranged the actors in their frames to capture the best picture, even repositioning bodies of dead soldiers for battlefield photos.
一些内战摄影师将演员安排在画面中以捕捉最佳照片，甚至重新定位死去士兵的尸体以拍摄战场照片。
Alexander Gardner, [Antietam, Md.
亚历山大·加德纳，[安蒂特姆，马里兰州]
Confederate dead by a fence on the Hagerstown road] , September 1862.
同盟者死在黑格斯敦路的栅栏旁]，1862 年 9 月。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
New and more destructive warfare technology emerged during this time that utilized discoveries and innovations in other areas of life, like transportation.
在此期间出现了更具破坏性的新战争技术，这些技术利用了交通等其他生活领域的发现和创新。
This photograph shows Robert E.
这张照片显示罗伯特·E.
Lee’s railroad gun and crew used in the main eastern theater of war at the siege of Petersburg, June 1864-April 1865.
1864 年 6 月至 1865 年 4 月，李的铁路炮和乘员在彼得堡围城战中东部主要战区使用。
“Petersburg, Va.
“弗吉尼亚州彼得堡。
Railroad gun and crew,” between 1864 and 1865.
铁路炮和船员”，1864 年至 1865 年间。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
The Democratic Party, absent its southern leaders, divided into two camps.
由于南方领导人缺席，民主党分为两个阵营。
War Democrats largely stood behind President Lincoln.
战争民主党人主要支持林肯总统。
Peace Democrats—also known as Copperheads—clashed frequently with both War Democrats and Republicans.
和平民主党人（也称为“铜斑蛇”）经常与战争民主党人和共和党人发生冲突。
Copperheads were sympathetic to the Confederacy; they exploited public antiwar sentiment (often the result of a lost battle or mounting casualties) and tried to push President Lincoln to negotiate an immediate peace, regardless of political leverage or bargaining power.
铜头蛇同情南方邦联。他们利用公众的反战情绪（通常是由于一场失败的战斗或不断增加的伤亡），并试图推动林肯总统通过谈判立即实现和平，无论政治影响力或讨价还价能力如何。
Had the Copperheads succeeded in bringing about immediate peace, the Union would have been forced to recognize the Confederacy as a separate and legitimate government and the institution of slavery would have remained intact.
如果铜头党成功地立即实现和平，联邦将被迫承认南部邦联是一个独立的合法政府，奴隶制也将保持不变。
While Washington buzzed with political activity, military life consisted of relative monotony punctuated by brief periods of horror.
当华盛顿的政治活动热闹非凡时，军事生活则相对单调，不时夹杂着短暂的恐怖。
Daily life for a Civil War soldier was one of routine.
内战士兵的日常生活是例行公事的。
A typical day began around six in the morning and involved drill, marching, lunch break, and more drilling followed by policing the camp.
典型的一天从早上六点左右开始，包括演习、行军、午休和更多演习，然后是营地治安。
Weapon inspection and cleaning followed, perhaps one final drill, dinner, and taps around nine or nine thirty in the evening.
接下来是武器检查和清洁，也许是最后一次演习、晚餐和晚上九点或九点三十分左右的水龙头。
Soldiers in both armies grew weary of the routine.
两军士兵都对这种惯例感到厌倦。
Picketing or foraging afforded welcome distractions to the monotony.
纠察队或觅食为单调的生活提供了受欢迎的消遣。
Soldiers devised clever ways of dealing with the boredom of camp life.
士兵们想出了巧妙的方法来应对营地生活的无聊。
The most common was writing.
最常见的是写作。
These were highly literate armies; nine out of every ten Federals and eight out of every ten Confederates could read and write.
这些军队的文化水平很高。每十个联邦成员中就有九个，每十个邦联成员中就有八个可以读写。
16 Letters home served as a tether linking soldiers to their loved ones.
16封家信成为士兵与亲人之间的纽带。
Soldiers also read; newspapers were in high demand.
士兵也读书；报纸的需求量很大。
News of battles, events in Europe, politics in Washington and Richmond, and local concerns were voraciously sought and traded.
有关战争的新闻、欧洲的事件、华盛顿和里士满的政治以及当地的担忧都被人们如饥似渴地寻找和交易。
While there were nurses, camp followers, and some women who disguised themselves as men, camp life was overwhelmingly male.
虽然有护士、营地追随者和一些女扮男装的女性，但营地生活绝大多数是男性。
Soldiers drank liquor, smoked tobacco, gambled, and swore.
士兵们喝酒、抽烟、赌博、说脏话。
Social commentators feared that when these men returned home, with their hard-drinking and irreligious ways, all decency, faith, and temperance would depart.
社会评论家担心，当这些人带着酗酒和不虔诚的方式回到家乡时，所有的正派、信仰和节制都会消失。
But not all methods of distraction were detrimental.
但并非所有分散注意力的方法都是有害的。
Soldiers also organized debate societies, composed music, sang songs, wrestled, raced horses, boxed, and played sports.
士兵们还组织辩论会、作曲、唱歌、摔跤、赛马、拳击和体育运动。
Neither side could consistently provide supplies for their soldiers, so it was not uncommon, though officially forbidden, for common soldiers to trade with the enemy.
双方都无法持续为自己的士兵提供补给，因此普通士兵与敌人进行贸易的情况并不少见，尽管官方是禁止的。
Confederate soldiers prized northern newspapers and coffee.
南方联盟士兵珍视北方的报纸和咖啡。
Northerners were glad to exchange these for southern tobacco.
北方人很高兴用这些来交换南方的烟草。
Supply shortages and poor sanitation were synonymous with Civil War armies.
供应短缺和卫生条件差是内战军队的代名词。
The close proximity of thousands of men bred disease.
成千上万的人靠得很近，滋生了疾病。
Lice were soldiers’ daily companions.
虱子是士兵的日常伙伴。
Music was popular among the soldiers of both armies, creating a diversion from the boredom and horror of the war.
音乐在两军士兵中都很流行，可以缓解战争的无聊和恐怖。
As a result, soldiers often sang on fatigue duty and while in camp.
因此，士兵们经常在疲劳值班和营地时唱歌。
Favorite songs often reminded the soldiers of home, including “Lorena,” “Home, Sweet Home,” and “Just Before the Battle, Mother.” Dances held in camp offered another way to enjoy music.
最喜欢的歌曲经常让士兵们想起家乡，包括“洛雷娜”、“家，甜蜜的家”和“就在战斗之前，母亲”。营地里举行的舞蹈提供了另一种享受音乐的方式。
Since there were often few women nearby, soldiers would dance with one another.
由于附近通常很少有妇女，士兵们会互相跳舞。
When the Civil War broke out, one of the most popular songs among soldiers and civilians was “John Brown’s Body,” which began “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the grave.” Started as a Union anthem praising John Brown’s actions at Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, then used by Confederates to vilify Brown, both sides’ version of the song stressed that they were on the right side.
内战爆发时，士兵和平民中最流行的歌曲之一是《约翰·布朗的尸体》，这首歌的开头是“约翰·布朗的尸体在坟墓里腐烂”。这首歌最初是一首赞美约翰·布朗在弗吉尼亚州哈泼斯费里的行动的联邦国歌，后来被南方联盟用来诽谤布朗，双方的版本都强调他们站在正确的一边。
Eventually the words to Julia Ward Howe’s poem “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” were set to the melody, further implying Union success.
最终，朱莉娅·沃德·豪 (Julia Ward Howe) 的诗《共和国战歌》中的歌词被融入到旋律中，进一步暗示了联邦的成功。
The themes of popular songs changed over the course of the war, as feelings of inevitable success alternated with feelings of terror and despair.
战争期间，流行歌曲的主题发生了变化，不可避免的成功感与恐惧和绝望感交替出现。
17
17 号
After an extensive delay on the part of Union commander George McClellan, his 120,000-man Army of the Potomac moved via ship to the peninsula between the York and James Rivers in Virginia.
在联邦指挥官乔治·麦克莱伦长时间拖延后，他的 120,000 人波托马克军团乘船前往弗吉尼亚州约克河和詹姆斯河之间的半岛。
Rather than crossing overland via the former battlefield at Manassas Junction, McClellan attempted to swing around the rebel forces and enter the capital of Richmond before they knew what hit them.
麦克莱伦没有从马纳萨斯交汇处的前战场穿越陆路，而是试图绕过叛军，在他们知道发生了什么袭击之前进入首都里士满。
McClellan, however, was an overly cautious man who consistently overestimated his adversaries’ numbers.
然而，麦克莱伦是一个过于谨慎的人，他总是高估对手的人数。
This cautious approach played into the Confederates’ favor on the outskirts of Richmond.
这种谨慎的做法在里士满郊区赢得了南部邦联的青睐。
Confederate General Robert E.
南方邦联将军罗伯特·E.
Lee, recently appointed commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, forced McClellan to retreat from Richmond, and his Peninsular Campaign became a tremendous failure.
李最近被任命为北弗吉尼亚陆军司令，迫使麦克莱伦从里士满撤退，他的半岛战役惨遭失败。
18
18
Union forces met with little success in the East, but the Western Theater provided hope for the United States.
联邦军队在东部战绩甚微，但西部战区为美国带来了希望。
In February 1862, men under Union general Ulysses S.
1862 年 2 月，联邦将军 Ulysses S.
Grant captured Forts Henry and Donelson along the Tennessee River.
格兰特占领了田纳西河沿岸的亨利堡和多纳尔森堡。
Fighting in the West greatly differed from that in the East.
西方的战斗与东方的战斗有很大不同。
At the First Battle of Bull Run, for example, two large armies fought for control of the nations’ capitals, while in the West, Union and Confederate forces fought for control of the rivers, since the Mississippi River and its tributaries were key components of the Union’s Anaconda Plan.
例如，在第一次布尔朗战役中，两支大军为争夺各国首都的控制权而战，而在西部，联邦和南部邦联的军队为争夺河流的控制权而战，因为密西西比河及其支流是联邦“蟒蛇计划”的关键组成部分。
One of the deadliest of these clashes occurred along the Tennessee River at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6–7, 1862.
其中最致命的一场冲突发生在 1862 年 4 月 6 日至 7 日的夏洛战役中，发生在田纳西河沿岸。
This battle, lasting only two days, was the costliest single battle in American history up to that time.
这场战斗只持续了两天，是当时美国历史上代价最高的一场战役。
The Union victory shocked both the Union and the Confederacy with approximately twenty-three thousand casualties, a number that exceeded casualties from all of the United States’ previous wars combined.
联邦的胜利震惊了联邦和邦联，造成大约两万三千人伤亡，这个数字超过了美国以前所有战争的伤亡人数总和。
19 The subsequent capture of New Orleans by Union forces proved a heavy blow to the Confederacy and capped an 1862 spring of success in the Western Theater.
19 随后联邦军队攻占新奥尔良，对南方联盟造成沉重打击，并为 1862 年春天在西部战区的成功画上句号。
The Union and Confederate navies helped or hindered army movements around the many marine environments of the southern United States.
联邦和邦联海军帮助或阻碍了美国南部许多海洋环境中的军队行动。
Each navy employed the latest technology to outmatch the other.
双方海军都采用了最新技术来超越对方。
The Confederate navy, led by Stephen Russell Mallory, had the unenviable task of constructing a fleet from scratch and trying to fend off a vastly better equipped Union navy.
由斯蒂芬·拉塞尔·马洛里领导的南方邦联海军面临着一项艰巨的任务：从头开始建造一支舰队，并试图抵御装备精良得多的联邦海军。
Led by Gideon Welles of Connecticut, the Union navy successfully implemented General-in-Chief Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan.
在康涅狄格州的吉迪恩·威尔斯的领导下，联邦海军成功实施了温菲尔德·斯科特将军的蟒蛇计划。
The future of naval warfare also emerged in the spring of 1862 as two “ironclad” warships fought a duel at Hampton Roads, Virginia.
1862 年春天，两艘“铁甲”战舰在弗吉尼亚州汉普顿路展开决斗，海战的未来也随之浮现。
The age of the wooden sail was gone and naval warfare would be fundamentally altered.
木帆的时代已经过去，海战将从根本上改变。
While advances in naval technology ruled the seas, African Americans on the ground were complicating Union war aims to an even greater degree.
虽然海军技术的进步统治了海洋，但地面上的非洲裔美国人却使联邦战争目标更加复杂化。
The creation of Black regiments was another kind of innovation during the Civil War.
黑人军团的创建是内战期间的另一种创新。
Northern free Black men and newly freed men joined together under the leadership of white officers to fight for the Union cause.
北方自由黑人和新获得自由的男子在白人军官的领导下联合起来，为联邦事业而战。
This novelty was not only beneficial for the Union war effort; it also showed the Confederacy that the Union sought to destroy the foundational institution (slavery) upon which their nation was built.
这种新颖性不仅有利于联邦的战争努力，而且也有利于联邦的战争。它还向邦联表明，联邦试图摧毁他们国家赖以建立的基础制度（奴隶制）。
William Morris Smith, [District of Columbia.
威廉·莫里斯·史密斯，[哥伦比亚特区。
Company E, 4th U.S. Colored Infantry, at Fort Lincoln], between 1863 and 1866.
美国第四有色步兵团 E 连，驻扎于林肯堡]，1863 年至 1866 年间。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
This African American family dressed in their finest clothes (including a USCT uniform) for this photograph, projecting respectability and dignity that was at odds with the southern perception of Black Americans.
这个非裔美国家庭在这张照片中穿着他们最好的衣服（包括 USCT 制服），表现出受人尊敬和尊严，这与南方对美国黑人的看法不一致。
[Unidentified African American soldier in Union uniform with wife and two daughters], between 1863 and 1865.
[身着联邦制服的身份不明的非裔美国士兵与妻子和两个女儿]，1863 年至 1865 年间。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
Despite the Confederate withdrawal and the high death toll, the Battle of Antietam was not a decisive Union victory.
尽管同盟军撤退并且死亡人数很高，但安提坦战役并不是联邦的决定性胜利。
It did, however, result in enough of a victory for Lincoln to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed enslaved people in areas under Confederate control.
然而，这确实为林肯带来了足够的胜利，他发布了《解放奴隶宣言》，解放了南部邦联控制地区的奴隶。
There were significant exemptions to the Emancipation Proclamation, including the border states and parts of other states in the Confederacy.
《解放奴隶宣言》有重大豁免，包括边境各州和联邦其他州的部分地区。
A far cry from a universal end to slavery, the Emancipation Proclamation nevertheless proved vital, shifting the war’s aims from simple union to emancipation.
尽管《解放奴隶宣言》与普遍终结奴隶制相去甚远，但事实证明它至关重要，它将战争的目标从简单的联盟转向了解放。
Framing it as a war measure, Lincoln and his cabinet hoped that stripping the Confederacy of its labor force would not only debilitate the southern economy but also weaken Confederate morale.
林肯和他的内阁将其视为一项战争措施，希望剥夺邦联的劳动力不仅会削弱南方的经济，还会削弱邦联的士气。
Furthermore, the Battle of Antietam and the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation all but ensured that the Confederacy would not be recognized by European powers.
此外，安提特姆战役和《解放奴隶宣言》的发布几乎确保了联邦不会得到欧洲列强的承认。
Nevertheless, Confederates continued fighting.
尽管如此，同盟军仍在继续战斗。
Union and Confederate forces clashed again at Fredericksburg, Virginia, in December 1862.
1862 年 12 月，联邦军和南部邦联军队在弗吉尼亚州弗雷德里克斯堡再次发生冲突。
This Confederate victory resulted in staggering Union casualties.
南方联盟的这次胜利导致联邦伤亡惨重。
As Union armies penetrated deeper into the Confederacy, politicians and generals came to understand the necessity and benefit of enlisting Black men in the army and navy.
随着联邦军队深入南部邦联，政治家和将军们开始认识到招募黑人加入陆军和海军的必要性和好处。
Although a few commanders began forming Black units in 1862, such as Massachusetts abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson’s First South Carolina Volunteers (the first regiment of Black soldiers), widespread enlistment did not occur until the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect on January 1, 1863.
尽管一些指挥官在 1862 年开始组建黑人部队，例如马萨诸塞州废奴主义者托马斯·温特沃斯·希金森 (Thomas Wentworth Higginson) 的第一南卡罗来纳志愿者团（第一支黑人士兵团），但直到 1863 年 1 月 1 日《解放黑奴宣言》生效后，才开始广泛入伍。
“And I further declare and make known,” Lincoln’s proclamation read, “that such persons of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service.” 21
林肯的公告中写道：“我进一步宣布并宣布，这些具备适当条件的人将被接收进入美国武装部队，驻守堡垒、阵地、车站和其他地方，并在上述服务中配备各种船只。” 21
The language describing Black enlistment indicated Lincoln’s implicit desire to segregate African American troops from the main campaigning armies of white soldiers.
描述黑人入伍的语言表明林肯隐含地希望将非裔美国军队与白人士兵的主要作战军队分开。
“I believe it is a resource which, if vigorously applied now, will soon close the contest.
“我相信，如果现在积极运用这一资源，这场竞赛很快就会结束。
It works doubly, weakening the enemy and strengthening us,” Lincoln remarked in August 1863 about Black soldiering.
它具有双重作用，削弱敌人并增强我们，”林肯在 1863 年 8 月谈到黑人当兵时说道。
22 Although more than 180,000 Black men (10 percent of the Union army) served during the war, the majority of United States Colored Troops (USCT) remained stationed behind the lines as garrison forces, often laboring and performing noncombat roles.
22 尽管有超过 180,000 名黑人（占联邦军队的 10%）在战争期间服役，但大多数美国有色人种部队 (USCT) 仍然作为驻军驻扎在战线后方，经常从事劳动和执行非战斗任务。
Black soldiers in the Union army endured rampant discrimination and earned less pay than white soldiers, while also facing the possibility of being murdered or sold into slavery if captured.
联邦军队中的黑人士兵遭受着猖獗的歧视，工资比白人士兵少，同时还面临着被谋杀或被俘后被卖为奴隶的可能性。
James Henry Gooding, a Black corporal in the famed 54th Massachusetts Volunteers, wrote to Abraham Lincoln in September 1863, questioning why he and his fellow volunteers were paid less than white men.
詹姆斯·亨利·古丁 (James Henry Gooding) 是著名的马萨诸塞州第 54 志愿军中的一名黑人下士，他于 1863 年 9 月写信给亚伯拉罕·林肯，质疑为什么他和他的志愿者战友的工资低于白人。
Gooding argued that because he and his brethren were born in the United States and selflessly left their private lives to enter the army, they should be treated “as American SOLDIERS, not as menial hirelings.” 23
古丁认为，由于他和他的兄弟们出生在美国，并无私地离开了自己的私人生活参军，因此他们应该被视为“美国士兵，而不是卑鄙的雇工”。 23
African American soldiers defied the inequality of military service and used their positions in the army to reshape society, North and South.
非裔美国士兵反抗服兵役的不平等，并利用他们在军队中的地位重塑南北社会。
The majority of the USCT had once been enslaved, and their presence as armed, blue-clad soldiers sent shock waves throughout the Confederacy.
大多数美国反恐部队都曾经被奴役过，他们作为武装的蓝衣士兵的存在在整个联邦中引起了震动。
To their friends and families, African American soldiers symbolized the embodiment of liberation and the destruction of slavery.
对于他们的朋友和家人来说，非裔美国士兵象征着解放和摧毁奴隶制的化身。
To white southerners, they represented the utter disruption of the Old South’s racial and social hierarchy.
对于南方白人来说，他们代表了旧南方种族和社会等级制度的彻底瓦解。
As members of armies of occupation, Black soldiers wielded martial authority in towns and plantations.
作为占领军的成员，黑人士兵在城镇和种植园中行使军事权力。
At the end of the war, as a Black soldier marched by a cluster of Confederate prisoners, he noticed his former enslaver among the group.
战争结束时，当一名黑人士兵走过一群南方邦联囚犯时，他注意到他的前奴隶也在人群中。
“Hello, massa,” the soldier exclaimed, “bottom rail on top dis time!” 24
“你好，马萨，”士兵喊道，“现在是时候把下面的栏杆放在上面了！” 24
The majority of the USCT occupied the South by performing garrison duty; other Black soldiers performed admirably on the battlefield, shattering white myths that docile, cowardly Black men would fold in the maelstrom of war.
USCT的大部分人员通过执行驻防任务占领了南方；其他黑人士兵在战场上表现出色，打破了温顺、懦弱的黑人在战争漩涡中屈服的白人神话。
Black troops fought in more than four hundred battles and skirmishes, including Milliken’s Bend and Port Hudson, Louisiana; Fort Wagner, South Carolina; Nashville; and the final campaigns to capture Richmond, Virginia.
黑人军队参加了四百多场战斗和小规模冲突，其中包括路易斯安那州的米利肯湾和哈德逊港；南卡罗来纳州瓦格纳堡；纳什维尔；以及夺取弗吉尼亚州里士满的最后战役。
Fifteen Black soldiers received the Medal of Honor, the highest honor bestowed for military heroism.
十五名黑人士兵获得了荣誉勋章，这是授予军事英雄的最高荣誉。
Through their voluntarism, service, battlefield contributions, and even death, Black soldiers laid their claims for citizenship.
通过志愿服务、服役、战场贡献甚至死亡，黑人士兵提出了公民身份的要求。
“Once let the Black man get upon his person the brass letter U.S.” Frederick Douglass, the great Black abolitionist, proclaimed, “and there is no power on earth which can deny that he has earned the right to citizenship.” 25
“曾经让黑人把铜字“U.S.”戴在身上。”伟大的黑人废奴主义者弗雷德里克·道格拉斯宣称，“地球上没有任何力量可以否认他已经赢得了公民权。” 25
Many enslaved laborers accompanied their enslavers in the Confederate army.
许多被奴役的劳工与他们的奴隶一起加入了南方联盟军队。
They served their enslavers as “camp servants,” cooking their meals, raising their tents, and carrying their supplies.
他们以“营地仆人”的身份为奴隶们服务，为他们做饭、搭帐篷、搬运物资。
The Confederacy also impressed enslaved laborers to perform manual labor.
南部邦联还鼓励奴隶劳动者从事体力劳动。
There are three important points to make about these enslaved “Confederates.” First, their labor was almost always coerced.
关于这些被奴役的“同盟者”，有三点需要指出。首先，他们的劳动几乎总是被强迫的。
Second, people are complicated and have varying, often contradictory loyalties.
其次，人是复杂的，忠诚度各不相同，而且往往是矛盾的。
An enslaved person could hope in general that the Confederacy would lose but at the same time be concerned for the safety of his enslaver and the Confederate soldiers he saw on a daily basis.
一个被奴役的人通常会希望南方联盟会失败，但同时又担心他的奴隶和他每天看到的南方联盟士兵的安全。
Finally, white Confederates did not see African Americans as their equals, much less as soldiers.
最后，白人南方邦联并不将非裔美国人视为与他们平等的人，更不用说将其视为士兵了。
There was never any doubt that Black laborers and camp servants were property.
毫无疑问，黑人劳工和营地仆人都是财产。
Though historians disagree on the matter, it is a stretch to claim that not a single African American ever fired a gun for the Confederacy; a camp servant whose enslaver died in battle might well pick up his dead enslaver’s gun and continue firing, if for no other reason than to protect himself.
尽管历史学家在这个问题上意见不一，但声称没有一个非裔美国人曾为南部邦联开过枪，这有些言过其实。一个奴隶在战斗中死去的营地仆人很可能会拿起死去的奴隶的枪并继续射击，如果没有其他原因，只是为了保护自己。
But this was always on an informal basis.
但这始终是非正式的。
The Confederate government did, in an act of desperation, pass a law in March 1865 allowing for the enlistment of Black soldiers, but only a few dozen African Americans (mostly Richmond hospital workers) had enlisted by the war’s end.
邦联政府在绝望中于 1865 年 3 月通过了一项法律，允许黑人士兵入伍，但到战争结束时，只有几十名非裔美国人（主要是里士满医院的工作人员）入伍。
As 1863 dawned, Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia continued its offensive strategy in the East.
1863 年黎明之际，李的北弗吉尼亚军团继续在东部实施进攻战略。
One of the war’s major battles occurred near the village of Chancellorsville, Virginia, between April 30 and May 6, 1863.
战争中的一场重大战役于 1863 年 4 月 30 日至 5 月 6 日期间发生在弗吉尼亚州钱斯勒斯维尔村附近。
While the Battle of Chancellorsville was an outstanding Confederate victory, it also resulted in heavy casualties and the mortal wounding of Confederate major general “Stonewall” Jackson, who was killed by friendly fire.
虽然切斯勒斯维尔战役是南方邦联取得的一场出色的胜利，但它也造成了重大人员伤亡，南方邦联少将“石墙”杰克逊被友军火力打死。
In spite of Jackson’s death, Lee continued his offensive against federal forces and invaded Pennsylvania in the summer of 1863.
尽管杰克逊去世了，李仍继续对联邦军队发起进攻，并于 1863 年夏天入侵宾夕法尼亚州。
During the three-day battle (July 1–3) at Gettysburg, heavy casualties crippled both sides.
在葛底斯堡为期三天的战斗（7 月 1 日至 3 日）中，双方伤亡惨重。
Yet the devastating July 3 infantry assault on the Union center, also known as Pickett’s Charge, caused Lee to retreat from Pennsylvania.
然而，7 月 3 日步兵对联邦中心的毁灭性袭击（也称为皮克特冲锋）导致李从宾夕法尼亚州撤退。
The Gettysburg Campaign was Lee’s final northern incursion and the Battle of Gettysburg remains the bloodiest battle of the war, and in American history, with fifty-one thousand casualties.
葛底斯堡战役是李的最后一次北方入侵，葛底斯堡战役仍然是美国历史上最血腥的战役，造成五万一千人伤亡。
Concurrently in the West, Union forces continued their movement along the Mississippi River and its tributaries.
与此同时，在西部，联邦军队继续沿密西西比河及其支流移动。
Grant launched his campaign against Vicksburg, Mississippi, in the winter of 1862.
1862 年冬天，格兰特发起了针对密西西比州维克斯堡的战役。
Known as the “Gibraltar of the West,” Vicksburg was the last holdout in the West, and its seizure would enable uninhibited travel for Union forces along the Mississippi River.
维克斯堡被称为“西方的直布罗陀”，是西方最后的据点，夺取它将使联邦军队能够沿着密西西比河畅行无阻。
Grant’s Vicksburg Campaign, which lasted until July 4, 1863, ended with the city’s surrender.
格兰特的维克斯堡战役一直持续到 1863 年 7 月 4 日，以该市投降而结束。
The fall of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two.
维克斯堡的陷落将联邦一分为二。
Despite Union success in the summer of 1863, discontent over the war simmered across the North.
尽管联邦在 1863 年夏天取得了成功，但北方各地对战争的不满情绪仍在酝酿之中。
This was particularly true in the wake of the Enrollment Act—the first effort at a draft among the northern populace during the Civil War.
在《招生法》出台之后尤其如此——这是内战期间北方民众首次进行的征兵行动。
Working-class northerners were especially angry that the wealthy could pay $300 for substitutes, sparing themselves from the carnage of war.
北方工人阶级尤其愤怒的是，富人可以花 300 美元购买替代品，从而使自己免受战争的屠杀。
“A rich man’s war, but a poor man’s fight,” was a popular refrain.
“这是一场富人的战争，但却是一场穷人的战斗”，这是一句流行的话。
26 The Emancipation Proclamation convinced many immigrants in northern cities that freed people would soon take their jobs.
26《解放黑奴宣言》让北部城市的许多移民相信，解放后的人们很快就会抢走他们的工作。
These economic and racial anxieties culminated in the New York City Draft Riots in July 1863.
这些经济和种族焦虑在 1863 年 7 月的纽约市征兵骚乱中达到了顶峰。
Over the span of four days, white rioters killed some 120 citizens, including the lynching of at least eleven Black New Yorkers.
四天之内，白人骚乱者杀害了约 120 名公民，其中至少有 11 名纽约黑人被私刑处死。
Property damage was in the millions, including the complete destruction of more than fifty properties—most notably that of the Colored Orphan Asylum.
财产损失达数百万，其中五十多处财产被彻底毁坏，其中最著名的是有色孤儿院。
It was the largest civil disturbance to date in the United States (aside from the war itself) and was only stopped by the deployment of Union soldiers, some of whom came directly from the battlefield at Gettysburg.
这是美国迄今为止最大规模的内乱（除了战争本身），直到联邦军队的部署才被制止，其中一些士兵直接来自葛底斯堡战场。
Elsewhere, the North produced widespread displays of unity.
在其他地方，北方广泛表现出团结。
Sanitary fairs originated in the Old Northwest and raised millions of dollars for Union soldiers.
卫生展览会起源于旧西北地区，为联邦士兵筹集了数百万美元。
Indeed, many women rose to take pivotal leadership roles in the sanitary fairs—a clear contribution to the northern war effort.
事实上，许多女性在卫浴博览会上担任了关键的领导角色——这显然是对北方战争的贡献。
The fairs also encouraged national unity within the North—something that became more important as the war dragged on and casualties continued to mount.
集市还鼓励了北方的民族团结——随着战争的拖延和伤亡人数的不断增加，这一点变得更加重要。
The northern homefront was complicated: overt displays of loyalty contrasted with violent dissent.
北部大后方的情况很复杂：公开的忠诚与暴力的异议形成鲜明对比。
Thomas Nast, “Our Heroines, United States Sanitary Commission,” in Harper’s Weekly, April 9, 1864.
托马斯·纳斯特 (Thomas Nast)，“我们的女英雄，美国卫生委员会”，《哈珀周刊》，1864 年 4 月 9 日。
Cushing/Whitney Medical Library at Yale University .
耶鲁大学库欣/惠特尼医学图书馆。
A similar situation played out in the Confederacy.
类似的情况在邦联也上演过。
The Confederate Congress passed its first conscription act in the spring of 1862, a full year before its northern counterpart.
1862 年春天，南部邦联国会通过了第一个征兵法案，比北方国会早了一整年。
Military service was required from all able-bodied males between ages eighteen and thirty-five (eventually extended to forty-five).
所有十八岁至三十五岁（最终延长至四十五岁）的身体健全的男性都必须服兵役。
Notable class exemptions likewise existed in the Confederacy: those who owned twenty or more enslaved laborers could escape the draft.
联邦中同样存在着值得注意的阶级豁免：那些拥有二十名或更多奴隶劳工的人可以逃避征兵。
Popular discontent reached a boiling point in 1863.
1863 年，民众的不满达到了沸点。
Through the spring of 1863 consistent food shortages led to “bread riots” in several Confederate cities, most notably Richmond, Virginia, and the Georgia cities of Augusta, Macon, and Columbus.
1863 年春天，持续的粮食短缺导致几个邦联城市发生了“面包骚乱”，其中最著名的是弗吉尼亚州的里士满，以及佐治亚州的奥古斯塔、梅肯和哥伦布等城市。
Confederate women led these mobs to protest food shortages and rampant inflation within the Confederate South.
邦联妇女带领这些暴徒抗议邦联南部的粮食短缺和猖獗的通货膨胀。
Exerting their own political control, women dramatically impacted the war through violent actions in these cases, as well as constant petitions to governors for aid and the release of husbands from military service.
妇女发挥自己的政治控制力，通过这些案件中的暴力行为以及不断向州长请求援助和释放丈夫服兵役的请愿，对战争产生了巨大影响。
One of these women wrote a letter to North Carolina governor Zebulon Vance, saying, “Especially for the sake of suffering women and children, do try and stop this cruel war.” 27 Confederates waged a multifront struggle against Union incursion and internal dissent.
其中一名妇女给北卡罗来纳州州长泽布伦·万斯写了一封信，信中写道：“尤其是为了受苦受难的妇女和儿童，请努力制止这场残酷的战争。” 27 南方邦联针对联邦入侵和内部异议开展了多条战线的斗争。
For some women, the best way to support their cause was spying on the enemy.
对于一些女性来说，支持她们事业的最好方式就是监视敌人。
When the war broke out, Rose O’Neal Greenhow was living in Washington, D.C., where she traveled in high social circles, gathering information for her Confederate contact.
战争爆发时，罗丝·奥尼尔·格林豪住在华盛顿特区，她在那里的上流社会圈子里穿梭，为南方邦联联络人收集信息。
Suspecting Greenhow of espionage, Allan Pinkerton placed her under surveillance, instigated a raid on her house to gather evidence, and then placed her under house arrest, after which she was incarcerated in Old Capitol Prison.
艾伦·平克顿怀疑格林豪从事间谍活动，对她进行监视，并煽动对她的房屋进行突袭以收集证据，然后将她软禁，之后她被监禁在旧国会大厦监狱。
Upon her release, she was sent, under guard, to Baltimore, Maryland.
获释后，她被送往马里兰州巴尔的摩，并受到看守。
From there Greenhow went to Europe to attempt to bring support to the Confederacy.
格林豪从那里前往欧洲，试图为南部邦联提供支持。
Failing in her efforts, Greenhow decided to return to America, boarding the blockade runner Condor , which ran aground near Wilmington, North Carolina.
但她的努力失败了，格林豪决定返回美国，登上了在北卡罗来纳州威尔明顿附近搁浅的封锁穿越者秃鹰号。
Subsequently, she drowned after her lifeboat capsized in a storm.
随后，她的救生艇在暴风雨中倾覆，导致她溺水身亡。
Greenhow gave her life for the Confederate cause, while Elizabeth “Crazy Bet” Van Lew sacrificed her social standing for the Union.
格林豪为南方联盟的事业献出了自己的生命，而伊丽莎白“疯狂的赌注”范卢则为联邦牺牲了自己的社会地位。
Van Lew was from a prominent Richmond, Virginia, family and spied on the Confederacy, leading to her being “held in contempt & scorn by the narrow minded men and women of my city for my loyalty.” 28 Indeed, when General Ulysses Grant took control of Richmond, he placed a special guard on Van Lew.
范·卢出身于弗吉尼亚州里士满的一个显赫家庭，对南部邦联进行间谍活动，导致她“因我的忠诚而受到本城心胸狭隘的男人和女人的蔑视和蔑视”。 28 事实上，当尤利西斯·格兰特将军控制里士满时，他对范·卢安排了一名特别警卫。
In addition to her espionage activities, Van Lew also acted as a nurse to Union prisoners in Libby Prison.
除了从事间谍活动外，范卢还在利比监狱担任联邦囚犯的护士。
For pro-Confederate southern women, there were more opportunities to show their scorn for the enemy.
对于支持南方邦联的南方女性来说，有更多机会表达对敌人的蔑视。
Some women in New Orleans took these demonstrations to the level of dumping their chamber pots onto the heads of unsuspecting federal soldiers who stood underneath their balconies, leading to Benjamin Butler’s infamous General Order Number 28, which arrested all rebellious women as prostitutes.
新奥尔良的一些妇女将这些示威活动发展到将夜壶扔到站在阳台下毫无戒心的联邦士兵头上，导致本杰明·巴特勒臭名昭著的第 28 号通令，该命令将所有叛逆妇女作为妓女逮捕。
Pauline Cushman was an American actress and a wartime spy.
波琳·库什曼是一位美国女演员和战时间谍。
Using her guile to fraternize with Confederate officers, Cushman snuck military plans and drawings to Union officials in her shoes.
库什曼利用她的诡计与南方邦联军官交好，并偷偷地将军事计划和图纸偷偷地交给联邦官员。
She was caught, tried, and sentenced to death, but was apparently saved days before her execution by the occupation of her native New Orleans by Union forces.
她被抓获、审判并被判处死刑，但在行刑前几天，联邦军队占领了她的家乡新奥尔良，显然她得救了。
Whether as spies, nurses, or textile workers, women were essential to the Union war effort.
无论是作为间谍、护士还是纺织工人，女性对于联邦的战争努力都至关重要。
“Pauline Cushman,” between 1855 and 1865.
“宝琳·库什曼”，1855 年至 1865 年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
Military strategy shifted in 1864.
1864 年军事战略发生转变。
The new tactics of “hard war” evolved slowly, as restraint toward southern civilians and property ultimately gave way to a concerted effort to demoralize southern civilians and destroy the southern economy.
新的“硬战”策略缓慢演变，对南方平民和财产的限制最终让位于挫伤南方平民士气和摧毁南方经济的协同努力。
Grant’s successes at Vicksburg and Chattanooga, Tennessee (November 1863), and Meade’s cautious pursuit of Lee after Gettysburg prompted Lincoln to promote Grant to general-in-chief of the Union army in early 1864.
格兰特在田纳西州维克斯堡和查塔努加（1863 年 11 月）的成功，以及葛底斯堡之后米德对李的谨慎追击，促使林肯于 1864 年初提拔格兰特为联邦军队总司令。
This change in command resulted in some of the bloodiest battles of the Eastern Theater.
这次指挥变动导致了东部战区一些最血腥的战斗。
Grant’s Overland Campaign, including the Battle of the Wilderness, the Battle of Cold Harbor, and the siege of Petersburg, demonstrated Grant’s willingness to tirelessly attack the ever-dwindling Army of Northern Virginia.
格兰特的陆路战役，包括荒野之战、冷港之战和圣彼得堡之围，表明了格兰特愿意不懈地攻击日益萎缩的北弗吉尼亚陆军。
By June 1864, Grant’s army surrounded the Confederate city of Petersburg, Virginia.
1864 年 6 月，格兰特的军队包围了南部邦联城市弗吉尼亚州彼得斯堡。
Siege operations cut off Confederate forces and supplies from the capital of Richmond.
围攻行动切断了邦联军队与首都里士满的补给。
Meanwhile out west, Union armies under the command of William Tecumseh Sherman implemented hard war strategies and slowly made their way through central Tennessee and northern Georgia, capturing the vital rail hub of Atlanta in September 1864.
与此同时，在西部，威廉·特库姆塞·谢尔曼 (William Tecumseh Sherman) 指挥下的联邦军队实施了硬战战略，缓慢地穿过田纳西州中部和佐治亚州北部，于 1864 年 9 月占领了重要的铁路枢纽亚特兰大。
Action in both theaters during 1864 caused even more casualties and furthered the devastation of disease.
1864 年，两个战区的行动造成了更多的人员伤亡，并进一步加剧了疾病的破坏。
Disease haunted both armies, and accounted for over half of all Civil War casualties.
疾病困扰着两支军队，占南北战争伤亡人数的一半以上。
Sometimes as many as half of the men in a company could be sick.
有时，一个连队中多达一半的员工可能生病了。
The overwhelming majority of Civil War soldiers came from rural areas, where less exposure to diseases meant soldiers lacked immunities.
绝大多数内战士兵来自农村地区，那里较少接触疾病，这意味着士兵缺乏免疫力。
Vaccines for diseases such as smallpox were largely unavailable to those outside cities or towns.
天花等疾病的疫苗对于城镇以外的人来说基本上无法获得。
Despite the common nineteenth-century tendency to see city men as weak or soft, soldiers from urban environments tended to succumb to fewer diseases than their rural counterparts.
尽管十九世纪普遍倾向于认为城市男人软弱或软弱，但来自城市环境的士兵往往比农村士兵更少死于疾病。
Tuberculosis, measles, rheumatism, typhoid, malaria, and smallpox spread almost unchecked among the armies.
肺结核、麻疹、风湿病、伤寒、疟疾和天花在军队中几乎不受控制地传播。
Pennsylvania Light Artillery, Battery B, Petersburg, Virginia.
宾夕法尼亚轻炮，B连，彼得斯堡，弗吉尼亚州。
Photograph by Timothy H.
摄影：Timothy H.
O’Sullivan, 1864.
奥沙利文，1864 年。
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
大都会艺术博物馆
Civil War medicine focused almost exclusively on curing the patient rather than preventing disease.
内战医学几乎完全专注于治疗患者而不是预防疾病。
Many soldiers attempted to cure themselves by concocting elixirs and medicines themselves.
许多士兵试图通过自己配制丹药和药物来治愈自己。
These ineffective home remedies were often made from various plants the men found in woods or fields.
这些无效的家庭疗法通常是由人们在树林或田野中发现的各种植物制成的。
There was no understanding of germ theory, so many soldiers did things that we would consider unsanitary today.
当时对细菌理论不了解，所以很多士兵做了我们今天认为不卫生的事情。
29 They ate food that was improperly cooked and handled, and they practiced what we would consider poor personal hygiene.
29 他们吃的食物烹饪和处理不当，而且他们的个人卫生习惯被我们认为是不良的。
They did not take appropriate steps to ensure that drinking water was free from bacteria.
他们没有采取适当的措施来确保饮用水不含细菌。
Diarrhea and dysentery were common.
腹泻和痢疾很常见。
These diseases were especially dangerous, as Civil War soldiers did not understand the value of replacing fluids as they were lost.
这些疾病尤其危险，因为内战士兵不了解在丢失液体时补充液体的价值。
As such, men affected by these conditions would weaken and become unable to fight or march, and as they became dehydrated their immune system became less effective, inviting other infections to attack the body.
因此，受到这些情况影响的男性会变得虚弱，无法战斗或行军，而且当他们脱水时，他们的免疫系统会变得不那么有效，从而引发其他感染攻击身体。
Through trial and error soldiers began to protect themselves from some of the more preventable sources of infection.
通过反复试验，士兵们开始保护自己免受一些更可预防的感染源的侵害。
Around 1862 both armies began to dig latrines rather than rely on the local waterways.
1862 年左右，两军开始挖掘厕所，而不是依赖当地的水道。
Burying human and animal waste also cut down on exposure to diseases considerably.
掩埋人类和动物粪便也大大减少了接触疾病的机会。
Medical surgery was limited and brutal.
医疗手术是有限且残酷的。
If a soldier was wounded in the torso, throat, or head, there was little surgeons could do.
如果一名士兵的躯干、喉咙或头部受伤，外科医生几乎无能为力。
Invasive procedures to repair damaged organs or stem blood loss invariably resulted in death.
修复受损器官或干失血的侵入性手术总是导致死亡。
Luckily for soldiers, only approximately one in six combat wounds were to one of those parts.
对于士兵来说幸运的是，只有大约六分之一的战伤发生在其中一个部位。
The remaining were to limbs, which was treatable by amputation.
其余的是四肢，可以通过截肢治疗。
Soldiers had the highest chance of survival if the limb was removed within forty-eight hours of injury.
如果在受伤后四十八小时内切除肢体，士兵的生存机会最高。
A skilled surgeon could amputate a limb in three to five minutes from start to finish.
熟练的外科医生可以在三到五分钟内从开始到结束截肢。
While the lack of germ theory again caused several unsafe practices, such as using the same tools on multiple patients, wiping hands on filthy gowns, or placing hands in communal buckets of water, there is evidence that amputation offered the best chance of survival.
虽然细菌理论的缺乏再次导致了一些不安全的做法，例如对多名患者使用相同的工具、在肮脏的衣服上擦手或将手放入公共水桶中，但有证据表明截肢提供了最佳的生存机会。
Amputations were a common form of treatment during the war.
截肢是战争期间常见的治疗方式。
While it saved the lives of some soldiers, it was extremely painful and resulted in death in many cases.
虽然它挽救了一些士兵的生命，但它是极其痛苦的，并导致许多情况下死亡。
It also produced the first community of war veterans without limbs in American history.
它还产生了美国历史上第一个失去四肢的退伍军人社区。
“Amputation being performed in a hospital tent, Gettysburg,” July 1863.
“截肢手术正在葛底斯堡的医院帐篷里进行”，1863 年 7 月。
National Archives and Records Administration .
国家档案和记录管理局。
It is a common misconception that amputation was done without anesthesia and against a patient’s wishes.
人们普遍误解截肢手术是在没有麻醉的情况下进行的，并且违背了患者的意愿。
Since the 1830s, Americans understood the benefits of nitrous oxide and ether in easing pain.
自 1830 年代以来，美国人就了解一氧化二氮和乙醚在缓解疼痛方面的好处。
Chloroform and opium were also used to either render patients unconscious or dull pain during the procedure.
氯仿和鸦片也被用来在手术过程中使患者失去知觉或钝痛。
Also, surgeons would not amputate without the patient’s consent.
此外，未经患者同意，外科医生不会截肢。
In the Union army alone, 2.8 million ounces of opium and over 5.2 million opium pills were administered.
仅在联邦军队中，就使用了 280 万盎司鸦片和超过 520 万颗鸦片丸。
In 1862, William Alexander Hammon was appointed Surgeon General for the United States.
1862 年，威廉·亚历山大·哈蒙 (William Alexander Hammon) 被任命为美国卫生局局长。
He sought to regulate dosages and manage supplies of available medicines, both to prevent overdosing and to ensure that an ample supply remained for the next engagement.
他试图调节剂量并管理可用药物的供应，既防止用药过量，又确保为下一次活动提供充足的供应。
However, his guidelines tended to apply only to the regular federal army.
然而，他的指导方针往往只适用于正规联邦军队。
Most Union soldiers were in volunteer units and organized at the state level.
大多数联邦士兵都是志愿部队，并在州一级组织起来。
Their surgeons often ignored posted limits on medicines, or worse, experimented with their own concoctions made from local flora.
他们的外科医生经常忽视对药物的限制，或者更糟糕的是，尝试用当地植物群制成的混合物。
In the North, the conditions in hospitals were somewhat superior.
在北方，医院的条件要好一些。
This was partly due to the organizational skills of women like Dorothea Dix, who was the Union’s Superintendent for Army Nurses.
这在一定程度上要归功于多萝西娅·迪克斯（Dorothea Dix）等女性的组织能力，她是工会陆军护士长。
Additionally, many women were members of the United States Sanitary Commission and helped to staff and supply hospitals in the North.
此外，许多妇女还是美国卫生委员会的成员，并帮助为北方的医院提供人员和物资。
Women took on key roles within hospitals both North and South.
女性在北方和南方的医院中都扮演着重要角色。
The publisher’s notice for Nurse and Spy in the Union Army states, “In the opinion of many, it is the privilege of woman to minister to the sick and soothe the sorrowing—and in the present crisis of our country’s history, to aid our brothers to the extent of her capacity.” 30 Mary Chesnut wrote, “Every woman in the house is ready to rush into the Florence Nightingale business.” 31 However, she indicated that after she visited the hospital, “I can never again shut out of view the sights that I saw there of human misery.
出版商在《联邦军队中的护士和间谍》的通知中写道，“在许多人看来，照顾病人、抚慰悲伤的人是女性的特权——在我们国家历史上当前的危机中，尽其所能帮助我们的兄弟。” 30 玛丽·切斯纳特 (Mary Chesnut) 写道：“家里的每个女人都准备好投入弗洛伦斯·南丁格尔的事业。” 31 然而，她表示，在参观医院后，“我再也无法忽视在那里看到的人类苦难的景象。
I sit thinking, shut my eyes, and see it all.” 32 Hospital conditions were often so bad that many volunteer nurses quit soon after beginning.
我坐着思考，闭上眼睛，看到这一切。” 32 医院条件常常很糟糕，许多志愿护士在开始工作后不久就辞职了。
Kate Cumming volunteered as a nurse shortly after the war began.
战争开始后不久，凯特·卡明自愿担任护士。
She, and other volunteers, traveled with the Army of Tennessee.
她和其他志愿者随田纳西州陆军旅行。
However, all but one of the women who volunteered with Cumming quit within a week.
然而，除了一名自愿与卡明一起工作的女性外，所有女性都在一周内退出了。
Death came in many forms; disease, prisons, bullets, even lightning and bee stings took men slowly or suddenly.
死亡有多种形式。疾病、监狱、子弹，甚至闪电和蜂蜇，慢慢或突然地夺走了人们的生命。
Their deaths, however, affected more than their regiments.
然而，他们的死亡影响的不仅仅是他们的军团。
Before the war, a wife expected to sit at her husband’s bed, holding his hand, and ministering to him after a long, fulfilling life.
战前，妻子期望在漫长而充实的生活结束后，坐在丈夫的床边，握着他的手，照顾他。
This type of death, “the Good Death,” changed during the Civil War as men died often far from home among strangers.
这种类型的死亡，即“善终”，在内战期间发生了变化，因为人们经常在远离家乡的陌生人中死去。
33 Casualty reporting was inconsistent, so a woman was often at the mercy of the men who fought alongside her husband to learn not only the details of his death but even that the death had occurred.
33 伤亡报告不一致，因此，妇女常常受到那些与她丈夫并肩作战的男人的摆布，他们不仅了解他死亡的细节，甚至还了解死亡的发生。
“Now I’m a widow.
“现在我是个寡妇了。
Ah!
啊！
That mournful word.
那悲伤的话语。
Little the world think of the agony it contains!” wrote Sally Randle Perry in her diary.
很少有人会想到其中所包含的痛苦！”莎莉·兰德尔·佩里在她的日记中写道。
34 After her husband’s death at Sharpsburg, Sally received the label she would share with more than two hundred thousand other women.
34 在她的丈夫在夏普斯堡去世后，莎莉获得了她将与超过二十万名其他女性分享的标签。
The death of a husband and loss of financial, physical, and emotional support could shatter lives.
丈夫的去世以及经济、身体和情感支持的丧失可能会毁掉生活。
It also had the perverse power to free women from bad marriages and open doors to financial and psychological independence.
它还具有使妇女摆脱糟糕婚姻并为经济和心理独立打开大门的反常力量。
Widows had an important role to play in the conflict.
寡妇在冲突中发挥着重要作用。
The ideal widow wore black, mourned for a minimum of two and a half years, resigned herself to God’s will, focused on her children, devoted herself to her husband’s memory, and brought his body home for burial.
理想的寡妇穿着黑色衣服，哀悼至少两年半，顺从上帝的旨意，专注于孩子，致力于纪念丈夫，并将他的遗体带回家埋葬。
Many tried, but not all widows were able to live up to the ideal.
许多人都尝试过，但并非所有寡妇都能实现理想。
Many were unable to purchase proper mourning garb.
许多人无法购买合适的丧服。
Black silk dresses, heavy veils, and other features of antebellum mourning were expensive and in short supply.
黑色丝绸连衣裙、厚重的面纱和其他战前哀悼的特色物品价格昂贵且供不应求。
Because most of these women were in their childbearing years, the war created an unprecedented number of widows who were pregnant or still nursing infants.
由于这些妇女大多数正处于育龄期，战争造成了数量空前的怀孕或仍在哺乳期的寡妇。
In a time when the average woman gave birth to eight to ten children in her lifetime, it is perhaps not surprising that the Civil War created so many widows who were also young mothers with little free time for formal mourning.
在平均女性一生中生育八到十个孩子的时代，内战创造了如此多的寡妇，她们也是年轻的母亲，几乎没有空闲时间进行正式哀悼，这也许并不奇怪。
Widowhood permeated American society.
鳏寡制渗透到了美国社会。
But in the end, it was up to each widow to navigate her own mourning.
但最终，每个寡妇都要独自度过自己的哀悼。
She joined the ranks of sisters, mothers, cousins, girlfriends, and communities in mourning men.
她加入了姐妹、母亲、表兄弟、女朋友和社区的行列来哀悼男人。
35
35
By the fall of 1864, military and social events played against the backdrop of the presidential election of 1864.
到 1864 年秋天，军事和社会事件在 1864 年总统选举的背景下发生。
While the war raged on, the presidential contest featured a transformed electorate.
当战争继续进行时，总统竞选的特点是选民发生了变化。
Three new states (West Virginia, Nevada, and Kansas) had been added since 1860, while the eleven states of the Confederacy did not participate.
自 1860 年以来增加了三个新州（西弗吉尼亚州、内华达州和堪萨斯州），而联邦的 11 个州没有参加。
Lincoln and his vice presidential nominee, Andrew Johnson (Tennessee), ran on the National Union Party ticket.
林肯和他的副总统候选人安德鲁·约翰逊（田纳西州）以国家联盟党的名义竞选。
The main competition came from his former commander, General George B.
主要竞争者来自他的前任指挥官乔治·B·布什将军。
McClellan.
麦克莱伦。
Though McClellan himself was a “War Democrat,” the official platform of the Democratic Party in 1864 revolved around negotiating an immediate end to the Civil War.
尽管麦克莱伦本人是一名“战争民主党人”，但 1864 年民主党的官方纲领却围绕着立即结束内战的谈判展开。
McClellan’s vice presidential nominee was George H.
麦克莱伦的副总统候选人是乔治·H·布什 (George H.
Pendleton of Ohio—a well-known “Peace Democrat.”
俄亥俄州的彭德尔顿——著名的“和平民主党人”。
On Election Day—November 8, 1864—Lincoln and McClellan each needed 117 electoral votes (out of a possible 233) to win the presidency.
1864 年 11 月 8 日选举日，林肯和麦克莱伦各需要 117 张选举人票（总共 233 张）才能赢得总统职位。
For much of the 1864 campaign season, Lincoln downplayed his chances of reelection and McClellan assumed that large numbers of Union soldiers would grant him support.
在 1864 年竞选季的大部分时间里，林肯淡化了他连任的机会，麦克莱伦则认为大量联邦士兵会支持他。
However, thanks in great part to William Sherman’s capture of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, and overwhelming support from Union troops, Lincoln won the election easily.
然而，在很大程度上得益于威廉·谢尔曼 (William Sherman) 于 1864 年 9 月 2 日攻占亚特兰大，以及联邦军队的压倒性支持，林肯轻松赢得了选举。
Additionally, Lincoln received support from more radical Republican factions and members of the Radical Democracy Party that demanded the end of slavery.
此外，林肯还得到了更激进的共和党派系和要求结束奴隶制的激进民主党成员的支持。
In the popular vote, Lincoln defeated McClellan, 55.1 percent to 44.9 percent.
在普选中，林肯以 55.1% 对 44.9% 击败了麦克莱伦。
In the Electoral College, Lincoln’s victory was even more pronounced: 212 to 21.
在选举团选举中，林肯的胜利更加明显：212比21。
Lincoln won twenty-two states, and McClellan only carried three: New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky.
林肯赢得了二十二个州，而麦克莱伦只赢得了三个州：新泽西州、特拉华州和肯塔基州。
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With crowds of people filling every inch of ground around the U.S. Capitol, President Lincoln delivered his inaugural address on March 4, 1865.
1865 年 3 月 4 日，美国国会大厦周围挤满了人群，林肯总统发表了就职演说。
Alexander Gardner, “Lincoln’s Second Inaugural,” between 1910 and 1920 from a photograph taken in 1865.
亚历山大·加德纳 (Alexander Gardner)，《林肯的第二次就职典礼》，1910 年至 1920 年间，取自 1865 年拍摄的照片。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
In the wake of his reelection, Abraham Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address on March 4, 1865, in which he concluded:
亚伯拉罕·林肯连任后于 1865 年 3 月 4 日发表第二次就职演说，他在演说中总结道：
With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation’s wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just, and a lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.
对任何人都没有恶意；为所有人提供慈善；坚定正义，正如上帝赋予我们看到正义一样，让我们努力完成我们正在从事的工作；包扎民族的伤口；照顾那些将要参加战斗的人，以及他的遗孀和孤儿——尽一切努力实现和维护我们之间以及与所有国家之间的公正和持久的和平。
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The years 1864 and 1865 were the very definition of hard war.
1864 年和 1865 年是硬战的典型。
Incredibly deadly for both sides, the Union campaigns in both the West and the East destroyed Confederate infrastructure and demonstrated the efficacy of the Union’s strategy.
联邦在西部和东部的战役摧毁了南部邦联的基础设施，并证明了联邦战略的有效性，这对双方来说都是极其致命的。
Following up on the successful capture of Atlanta, William Sherman conducted his March to the Sea in the fall of 1864, arriving in Savannah with time to capture it and deliver it as a Christmas present for Abraham Lincoln.
成功占领亚特兰大后，威廉·谢尔曼于 1864 年秋天进行了向大海进军，抵达萨凡纳，及时占领了亚特兰大，并将其作为送给亚伯拉罕·林肯的圣诞礼物。
Sherman’s path of destruction took on an even more destructive tone as he moved into the heart of the Confederacy in South Carolina in early 1865.
1865 年初，当谢尔曼进入南卡罗来纳州南部邦联的中心地带时，他的破坏之路呈现出更具破坏性的基调。
The burning of Columbia, South Carolina, and subsequent capture of Charleston brought the hard hand of war to the birthplace of secession.
烧毁南卡罗来纳州哥伦比亚，以及随后占领查尔斯顿，给分裂国家的发源地带来了战争的残酷打击。
With Grant’s dogged pursuit of the Army of Northern Virginia, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, effectively ending major Confederate military operations.
随着格兰特对北弗吉尼亚军团的顽强追击，李于 1865 年 4 月 9 日在阿波马托克斯法院向格兰特投降，实际上结束了南方联盟的主要军事行动。
Unions soldiers pose in front of the Appomattox Court House after Lee’s surrender in April 1865.
1865 年 4 月李投降后，联邦士兵在阿波马托克斯法院前合影。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
To ensure the permanent legal end of slavery, Republicans drafted the Thirteenth Amendment during the war.
为了确保奴隶制在法律上永久结束，共和党人在战争期间起草了第十三修正案。
Yet the end of legal slavery did not mean the end of racial injustice.
然而，合法奴隶制的结束并不意味着种族不平等的结束。
During the war, formerly enslaved people were often segregated into disease-ridden contraband camps.
战争期间，以前的奴隶经常被隔离到疾病缠身的走私营中。
After the war, the Republican Reconstruction program of guaranteeing the rights of Black Americans succumbed to persistent racism and southern white violence.
战后，保障美国黑人权利的共和党重建计划屈服于持续的种族主义和南方白人暴力。
Long after 1865, most Black southerners continued to labor on plantations, albeit as nominally free tenants or sharecroppers, while facing public segregation and voting discrimination.
1865 年之后很久，大多数南方黑人继续在种植园劳动，尽管名义上是自由佃农或佃农，但同时面临着公共种族隔离和投票歧视。
The effects of slavery endured long after emancipation.
奴隶制的影响在解放后仍持续很长时间。
As battlefields fell silent in 1865, the question of secession had been answered, slavery had been eradicated, and America was once again territorially united.
1865 年，战场归于平静，分裂国家问题得到解答，奴隶制被铲除，美国在领土上再次统一。
But in many ways, the conclusion of the Civil War created more questions than answers.
但从很多方面来说，内战的结束带来的问题多于答案。
How would the nation become one again?
民族如何再次合一？
Who was responsible for rebuilding the South?
谁负责重建南方？
What role would African Americans occupy in this society?
非裔美国人在这个社会中将扮演什么角色？
Northern and southern soldiers returned home with broken bodies, broken spirits, and broken minds.
南北士兵带着破碎的身体、破碎的精神、破碎的心灵回到家乡。
Plantation owners had land but not labor.
种植园主拥有土地，但没有劳动力。
Recently freed African Americans had their labor but no land.
最近获得自由的非裔美国人有劳动力，但没有土地。
Formerly enslaved people faced a world of possibilities—legal marriage, family reunions, employment, and fresh starts—but also a racist world of bitterness, violence, and limited opportunity.
以前的奴隶面临着一个充满可能性的世界——合法婚姻、家庭团聚、就业和新的开始——但也面临着一个充满痛苦、暴力和有限机会的种族主义世界。
The war may have been over, but the battles for the peace were just beginning.
战争可能已经结束，但争取和平的战斗才刚刚开始。
1.
1.
Alexander Stephens on slavery and the Confederate constitution, 1861
亚历山大·斯蒂芬斯论奴隶制和邦联宪法，1861 年
Confederates had to quickly create not only a government but also a nation, including all of the cultural values required to foster patriotism.
南方邦联不仅必须迅速建立一个政府，而且必须迅速建立一个国家，包括培养爱国主义所需的所有文化价值观。
In this speech, Alexander Stephens, Vice President of the Confederacy, proclaims that slavery and white supremacy were not only the cause for secession but also the “cornerstone” of the Confederate nation.
在这次演讲中，南部邦联副总统亚历山大·斯蒂芬斯宣称，奴隶制和白人至上不仅是分裂国家的原因，也是南部邦联国家的“基石”。
2.
2.
General Benjamin F.
本杰明·F.将军
Butler reacts to self-emancipation, 1861
巴特勒对自我解放的反应，1861
Self-emancipating people posed a dilemma for the Union military.
自我解放的人们给联邦军队带来了两难的境地。
Soldiers were forbidden to interfere with slavery or assist runaways, but many soldiers disobeyed the policy.
士兵被禁止干涉奴隶制或协助逃亡者，但许多士兵违反了这项政策。
In May 1861, General Benjamin F.
1861 年 5 月，本杰明·F.
Butler went over his superiors’ heads and began accepting freedom-seeking people who came to Fortress Monroe in Virginia.
巴特勒不顾上级的同意，开始接受来到弗吉尼亚州门罗堡寻求自由的人。
Butler reasoned that these people were “contraband of war,” and he had as much a right to seize them as he did to seize enemy horses or cannons.
巴特勒认为这些人是“战争违禁品”，他有权扣押他们，就像扣押敌人的马匹或大炮一样。
Later that summer Congress affirmed Butler’s policy in the First Confiscation Act.
那年夏天晚些时候，国会在《第一没收法案》中确认了巴特勒的政策。
3.
3.
William Henry Singleton, a formerly enslaved man, recalls fighting for the Union, 1922
前奴隶威廉·亨利·辛格尔顿 (William Henry Singleton) 回忆起 1922 年为联邦而战的情景
William Henry Singleton was born to his enslaved mother, Lettice, and her enslaver’s brother, William Singleton.
威廉·亨利·辛格尔顿是他被奴役的母亲莱蒂斯和她奴隶主的兄弟威廉·辛格尔顿所生的。
At the age of four, he was sold away from his mother but ran back to her several times throughout his life.
四岁时，他被卖离母亲身边，但一生中又多次回到母亲身边。
When the war broke out, he escaped to Union lines and volunteered for service.
战争爆发后，他逃到联邦防线并自愿参军。
After being dismissed, he rallied one thousand Black soldiers and received a promotion as a sergeant.
被解职后，他召集了一千名黑人士兵，并晋升为中士。
The massive casualty rates of the Civil War meant that nurses were always needed.
内战的大量伤亡意味着始终需要护士。
Women, North and South, left the comforts of home to care for the wounded.
无论南北，妇女都离开舒适的家去照顾伤员。
Hospital conditions were often so bad that many volunteer nurses quit soon after beginning.
医院条件往往很糟糕，以至于许多志愿护士开始后不久就辞职了。
After the war, Kate Cumming, a nurse who traveled with the Army of Tennessee, published an account of her experience.
战后，随田纳西州陆军服役的护士凯特·卡明发表了一篇关于她经历的文章。
She included a poem, written by an unknown author about nursing in the war.
她收录了一首由一位不知名作家写的关于战争中护理的诗。
5.
5.
Ambrose Bierce recalls his experience at the Battle of Shiloh, 1881
安布罗斯·比尔斯 (Ambrose Bierce) 回忆 1881 年示罗战役的经历
Civil War soldiers described the experience of combat as both terrifying and confusing.
内战士兵形容战斗经历既可怕又令人困惑。
The American writer, Ambrose Bierce, captures both the confusion and terror of the Battle of Shiloh in the below excerpt of his 1881 recollections of the battle.
美国作家安布罗斯·比尔斯 (Ambrose Bierce) 在下面的 1881 年战斗回忆摘录中捕捉到了示罗战役的混乱和恐怖。
Music played an important role in the Civil War.
音乐在内战中发挥了重要作用。
Songs celebrated the cause, mourned the loss of life, and bound sings together in shared commitments to mutual sacrifice.
歌曲庆祝这一事业，哀悼逝去的生命，并一起歌唱，共同承诺相互牺牲。
These two songs, both written by women, one in the North and the other in the South, show the flexibility of Civil War music.
这两首歌都是由女性创作的，一首来自北方，另一首来自南方，展示了内战音乐的灵活性。
The first is an example of the somber, sacralizing function of music, while the latter is an example of a lighthearted attempt at humor.
第一个例子展示了音乐的阴郁、神圣化功能，而后者则展示了轻松幽默的尝试。
Abraham Lincoln offered a first draft of history in his second inaugural address, casting the Civil War as a war for union that later became a spiritual process of national penance for two hundred and fifty years of slaveholding.
亚伯拉罕·林肯在他的第二次就职演说中提出了历史的初稿，将内战描述为一场争取联邦的战争，后来成为国家对两百五十年奴隶制的忏悔的精神过程。
Lincoln also looked to the future, envisioning a harmonious and speedy Reconstruction that would take place “with malice toward none” and “with charity for all.”
林肯还展望了未来，设想了一场和谐而迅速的重建，“对任何人都没有恶意”，“对所有人都有仁慈”。
The Civil War ultimately opened a variety of arenas for Union and Confederate women’s participation.
内战最终为联邦和南部邦联妇女的参与开辟了各种舞台。
In the North, the United States Sanitary Commission in particular centralized women’s opportunities to volunteer as nurses, donate supplies, and to raise funds at Sanitary Fairs.
在北方，美国卫生委员会特别重视妇女志愿担任护士、捐赠物资以及在卫生博览会上筹集资金的机会。
This 1864 image from popular periodical Harper’s Weekly celebrates women’s contributions on the battlefield, in the hospital, in the parlor, and at the fair.
这张 1864 年的图片来自流行期刊《哈珀周刊》，颂扬女性在战场、医院、客厅和集市上做出的贡献。
Death pervaded every aspect of life during the years of the Civil War.
在内战期间，死亡渗透到生活的方方面面。
This gruesome photograph, taken after the battle of Cold Harbor, shows the hasty burial procedures used to reckon with unprecedented death.
这张可怕的照片是在冷港战役后拍摄的，展示了用于应对前所未有的死亡的仓促埋葬程序。
Dirty jobs like this were often left to Black soldiers or freedpeople in Contraband Camps.
像这样肮脏的工作往往被留给黑人士兵或走私营中的自由人。
VII.
七．
Reference Material This chapter was edited by Angela Esco Elder and David Thomson, with content contributions by Thomas Balcerski, William Black, Frank Cirillo, Matthew C.
参考资料 本章由 Angela Esco Elder 和 David Thomson 编辑，内容由 Thomas Balcerski、William Black、Frank Cirillo、Matthew C.
Hulbert, Andrew F.
赫尔伯特，安德鲁·F.
Lang, John Patrick Riley, Angela Riotto, Gregory N.
朗、约翰·帕特里克·莱利、安吉拉·里奥托、格雷戈里·N.
Stern, David Thomson, Ann Tucker, and Rebecca Zimmer.
斯特恩、大卫·汤姆森、安·塔克和丽贝卡·齐默。
Recommended citation: Thomas Balcerski et al., “The Civil War,” Angela Esco Elder and David Thomson, eds., in The American Yawp , eds.
推荐引用：Thomas Balcerski 等人，“内战”，Angela Esco Elder 和 David Thomson 编辑，载于 The American Yawp 编辑。
Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
约瑟夫·洛克和本·赖特（加利福尼亚州斯坦福：斯坦福大学出版社，2018 年）。