The American Yawp
Unidentified artist, The Old Plantation, c.
身份不明的艺术家，旧种植园，c。
1790–1800, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum.
1790-1800，艾比·奥尔德里奇·洛克菲勒民间艺术博物馆。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
* NOTE: You are viewing a chapter from the archived, “First Edition” version of the American Yawp, which stopped receiving updates in spring 2026.
* 注意：您正在查看《American Yawp》存档的“第一版”版本中的章节，该版本已于 2026 年春季停止接收更新。
Click here to access the current, updated edition *
单击此处访问当前的更新版本*
Whether they came as servants, enslaved laborers, free farmers, religious refugees, or powerful planters, the men and women of the American colonies created new worlds.
无论他们是作为仆人、被奴役的劳工、自由农民、宗教难民还是强大的种植园主，美洲殖民地的男男女女都创造了新的世界。
Native Americans saw fledgling settlements grow into unstoppable beachheads of vast new populations that increasingly monopolized resources and remade the land into something else entirely.
美洲原住民看到新兴的定居点发展成为大量新人口不可阻挡的滩头阵地，这些新人口日益垄断资源，并将土地完全改造成其他东西。
Meanwhile, as colonial societies developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, fluid labor arrangements and racial categories solidified into the race-based, chattel slavery that increasingly defined the economy of the British Empire.
与此同时，随着十七世纪和十八世纪殖民社会的发展，流动的劳动力安排和种族类别固化为基于种族的动产奴隶制，日益定义了大英帝国的经济。
The North American mainland originally occupied a small and marginal place in that broad empire, as even the output of its most prosperous colonies paled before the tremendous wealth of Caribbean sugar islands.
北美大陆最初在这个广阔的帝国中占据着一个很小的边缘位置，即使是其最繁荣的殖民地的产出在加勒比糖岛的巨大财富面前也显得黯然失色。
And yet the colonial backwaters on the North American mainland, ignored by many imperial officials, were nevertheless deeply tied into these larger Atlantic networks.
然而，被许多帝国官员忽视的北美大陆的殖民地死水区，却与这些更大的大西洋网络紧密相连。
A new and increasingly complex Atlantic World connected the continents of Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
一个新的、日益复杂的大西洋世界连接了欧洲、非洲和美洲大陆。
Events across the ocean continued to influence the lives of American colonists.
大洋彼岸的事件继续影响着美国殖民者的生活。
Civil war, religious conflict, and nation building transformed seventeenth-century Britain and remade societies on both sides of the ocean.
内战、宗教冲突和国家建设改变了 17 世纪的英国，也重塑了大洋两岸的社会。
At the same time, colonial settlements grew and matured, developing into powerful societies capable of warring against Native Americans and subduing internal upheaval.
与此同时，殖民定居点不断发展和成熟，发展成为能够与美洲原住民作战并平息内部动乱的强大社会。
Patterns and systems established during the colonial era would continue to shape American society for centuries.
殖民时代建立的模式和制度将继续塑造美国社会几个世纪。
And none, perhaps, would be as brutal and destructive as the institution of slavery.
也许没有什么比奴隶制更残酷、更具破坏性了。
After his arrival as a missionary in Charles Town, Carolina, in 1706, Reverend Francis Le Jau quickly grew disillusioned by the horrors of American slavery.
1706 年，弗朗西斯·勒焦牧师以传教士身份抵达卡罗来纳州查尔斯镇，此后他很快就对美国奴隶制的恐怖感到幻灭。
He met enslaved Africans ravaged by the Middle Passage, Native Americans traveling south to enslave enemy villages, and colonists terrified of invasions from French Louisiana and Spanish Florida.
他遇到了被中部航道蹂躏的非洲奴隶、南下奴役敌人村庄的美洲原住民，以及害怕法属路易斯安那和西班牙佛罗里达入侵的殖民者。
Slavery and death surrounded him.
奴役和死亡包围着他。
Le Jau’s strongest complaints were reserved for his own countrymen, the English.
勒焦最强烈的抱怨是针对他自己的同胞英国人的。
English traders encouraged wars with Native Americans in order to purchase and enslave captives, and planters justified the use of an enslaved workforce by claiming white servants were “good for nothing at all.” Although the minister thought otherwise and baptized and educated a substantial number of enslaved people, he was unable to overcome enslavers’ fears that Christian baptism would lead to slave emancipation.
英国商人鼓励与美洲原住民进行战争，以购买和奴役俘虏，而种植园主则通过声称白人仆人“一无是处”来证明使用被奴役劳动力的合理性。尽管牧师不这么认为，并为大量奴隶进行了洗礼和教育，但他无法克服奴隶主对基督教洗礼会导致奴隶解放的恐惧。
1
1
The 1660s marked a turning point for Black men and women in English colonies like Virginia in North America and Barbados in the West Indies.
1660 年代对于北美弗吉尼亚州和西印度群岛巴巴多斯等英国殖民地的黑人来说是一个转折点。
New laws gave legal sanction to the enslavement of people of African descent for life.
新法律对非洲人后裔的终身奴役给予法律制裁。
The permanent deprivation of freedom and the separate legal status of enslaved Africans facilitated the maintenance of strict racial barriers.
被奴役的非洲人永久被剥夺自由和单独的法律地位促进了严格的种族障碍的维持。
Skin color became more than a superficial difference; it became the marker of a transcendent, all-encompassing division between two distinct peoples, two races, white and Black.
肤色不再只是表面的差异；它成为两个不同民族、两个种族（白人和黑人）之间超然的、包罗万象的分歧的标志。
2
2
All seventeenth-century racial thought did not point directly toward modern classifications of racial hierarchy.
所有 17 世纪的种族思想并不直接指向现代的种族等级分类。
Captain Thomas Phillips, master of a slave ship in 1694, did not justify his work with any such creed: “I can’t think there is any intrinsic value in one color more than another, nor that white is better than black, only we think it so because we are so.” 3 For Phillips, the profitability of slavery was the only justification he needed.
1694 年，一艘奴隶船的船长托马斯·菲利普斯 (Thomas Phillips) 船长并没有用任何这样的信条来证明自己的工作是正确的：“我不认为一种颜色比另一种颜色有更多的内在价值，也不认为白色比黑色更好，只是我们这样认为，因为我们本来就是这样。” 3 对于菲利普斯来说，奴隶制的盈利能力是他所需要的唯一理由。
Wars offered the most common means for colonists to acquire enslaved Native Americans.
战争为殖民者获取被奴役的美洲原住民提供了最常见的手段。
Seventeenth-century European legal thought held that enslaving prisoners of war was not only legal but more merciful than killing the captives outright.
17世纪的欧洲法律思想认为，奴役战俘不仅合法，而且比直接杀死战俘更加仁慈。
After the Pequot War (1636–1637), Massachusetts Bay colonists sold hundreds of Native Americans into slavery in the West Indies.
皮科特战争（1636-1637）后，马萨诸塞湾殖民者将数百名美洲原住民卖到西印度群岛为奴。
A few years later, Dutch colonists in New Netherland (New York and New Jersey) enslaved Algonquians during both Governor Kieft’s War (1641–1645) and the two Esopus Wars (1659–1663).
几年后，新荷兰（纽约和新泽西）的荷兰殖民者在基夫特总督战争（1641-1645）和两次伊索普斯战争（1659-1663）期间奴役了阿尔冈昆人。
The Dutch sent these war captives to English-settled Bermuda as well as Curaçao, a Dutch plantation colony in the southern Caribbean.
荷兰人将这些战俘送往英国定居的百慕大以及加勒比南部的荷兰种植园殖民地库拉索岛。
An even larger number of enslaved Native Americans were captured during King Philip’s War (1675–1676), an uprising against the encroachments of the New England colonies.
在菲利普国王战争（1675-1676）期间，更多被奴役的美洲原住民被俘，这是一场反抗新英格兰殖民地侵略的起义。
Hundreds of Native Americans were bound and shipped into slavery.
数百名美洲原住民被捆绑并运往奴隶制。
The New England colonists also tried to send enslaved Native Americans to Barbados, but the Barbados Assembly refused to import them for fear they would encourage rebellion.
新英格兰殖民者还试图将被奴役的美洲原住民送往巴巴多斯，但巴巴多斯议会拒绝进口他们，因为担心他们会鼓励叛乱。
In the eighteenth century, wars in Florida, South Carolina, and the Mississippi Valley produced even more enslaved Native Americans.
十八世纪，佛罗里达州、南卡罗来纳州和密西西比河流域的战争产生了更多被奴役的美洲原住民。
Some wars emerged from contests between Native Americans and colonists for land, while others were manufactured as pretenses for acquiring captives.
有些战争源于美洲原住民和殖民者之间对土地的争夺，而另一些战争则是为了获取俘虏而制造的。
Some were not wars at all but merely illegal raids performed by slave traders.
有些根本不是战争，而只是奴隶贩子进行的非法袭击。
Historians estimate that between 24,000 and 51,000 Native Americans were forced into slavery throughout the southern colonies between 1670 and 1715.
历史学家估计，1670 年至 1715 年间，整个南部殖民地有 24,000 至 51,000 名美洲原住民被迫沦为奴隶。
4 While some of the enslaved Native Americans remained in the region, many were exported through Charles Town, South Carolina, to other ports in the British Atlantic—most likely to Barbados, Jamaica, and Bermuda.
4 虽然一些被奴役的美洲原住民仍留在该地区，但许多人通过南卡罗来纳州查尔斯镇出口到英属大西洋的其他港口——最有可能是巴巴多斯、牙买加和百慕大。
Many of the English colonists who wished to claim land in frontier territories were threatened by the violence inherent in the Native American slave trade.
许多希望在边境领土上拥有土地的英国殖民者受到美洲原住民奴隶贸易中固有的暴力的威胁。
By the eighteenth century, colonial governments often discouraged the practice, although it never ceased entirely as long as slavery was, in general, a legal institution.
到了十八世纪，殖民政府经常劝阻这种做法，尽管只要奴隶制总体上还是一种合法制度，这种做法就从未完全停止过。
Enslaved Native Americans died quickly, mostly from disease, but others were murdered or died from starvation.
被奴役的美洲原住民很快就死了，大部分死于疾病，但其他人则被谋杀或死于饥饿。
The demands of growing plantation economies required a more reliable labor force, and the transatlantic slave trade provided such a workforce.
不断增长的种植园经济的需求需要更可靠的劳动力，而跨大西洋奴隶贸易提供了这样的劳动力。
European slavers transported millions of Africans across the ocean in a terrifying journey known as the Middle Passage.
欧洲奴隶贩子将数百万非洲人运送到大洋彼岸，进行了一段被称为“中间航道”的可怕旅程。
Writing at the end of the eighteenth century, Olaudah Equiano recalled the fearsomeness of the crew, the filth and gloom of the hold, the inadequate provisions allotted for the captives, and the desperation that drove some enslaved people to suicide.
奥拉达·埃奎亚诺在十八世纪末写下这篇文章，回忆了船员们的可怕、货舱的肮脏和阴暗、为俘虏分配的食物不足，以及驱使一些奴隶自杀的绝望。
(Equiano claimed to have been born in Igboland in modern-day Nigeria, but he may have been born in colonial South Carolina, where he collected memories of the Middle Passage from African-born enslaved people.) In the same time period, Alexander Falconbridge, a slave ship surgeon, described the sufferings of enslaved Africans from shipboard infections and close quarters in the hold.
（艾奎亚诺声称出生在现代尼日利亚的伊博兰，但他可能出生在殖民地南卡罗来纳州，在那里他从非洲出生的奴隶那里收集了关于中间航道的记忆。）同一时期，奴隶船外科医生亚历山大·法尔肯布里奇（Alexander Falconbridge）描述了非洲奴隶因船上感染和舱内近距离而遭受的痛苦。
Dysentery, known as “the bloody flux,” left captives lying in pools of excrement.
被称为“血腥流”的痢疾使俘虏躺在粪便池中。
Chained in small spaces in the hold, enslaved people could lose so much skin and flesh from chafing against metal and timber that their bones protruded.
奴隶们被锁在货舱狭小的空间里，由于与金属和木材的摩擦，他们可能会失去大量的皮肤和肌肉，以致他们的骨头突出。
Other sources detailed rapes, whippings, and diseases like smallpox and conjunctivitis aboard slave ships.
其他消息来源详细描述了奴隶船上的强奸、鞭打以及天花和结膜炎等疾病。
5
5
“Middle” had various meanings in the Atlantic slave trade.
“中间”在大西洋奴隶贸易中具有多种含义。
For the captains and crews of slave ships, the Middle Passage was one leg in the maritime trade in sugar and other semifinished American goods, manufactured European commodities, and enslaved Africans.
对于奴隶船的船长和船员来说，中间航道是糖和其他美国半成品、欧洲制成品和奴役非洲人的海上贸易的一站。
For the enslaved Africans, the Middle Passage was the middle leg of three distinct journeys from Africa to the Americas.
对于被奴役的非洲人来说，中间航道是从非洲到美洲的三段不同旅程的中段。
First was an overland journey in Africa to a coastal slave-trading factory, often a trek of hundreds of miles.
首先是从非洲前往沿海奴隶贸易工厂的陆路旅程，通常需要跋涉数百英里。
Second—and middle—was an oceanic trip lasting from one to six months in a slaver.
第二次，也是中间一次，是一次在奴隶船上持续一到六个月的海洋旅行。
Third was acculturation (known as “seasoning”) and transportation to the American mine, plantation, or other location where enslaved people were forced to labor.
第三是文化适应（称为“调味”）和运送到美国矿山、种植园或其他被奴役者被迫劳动的地方。
Slave ships transported 11–12 million Africans to destinations in North and South America, but it was not until the end of the 18th century that any regulation was introduced.
奴隶船将 11-1200 万非洲人运送到北美和南美的目的地，但直到 18 世纪末才出台任何规定。
The Brookes print dates to after the Regulated Slave Trade Act of 1788, but still shows enslaved Africans chained in rows using iron leg shackles.
布鲁克斯的印刷品可以追溯到 1788 年《奴隶贸易管制法》之后，但仍然显示被奴役的非洲人被铁脚镣锁成一排。
The slave ship Brookes was allowed to carry up to 454 enslaved people, allotting 6 feet (1.8 m) by 1 foot 4 inches (0.41 m) to each man; 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) by 1 foot 4 inches (0.41 m) to each woman, and 5 feet (1.5 m) by 1 foot 2 inches (0.36 m) to each child, but one slave trader alleged that before 1788, the ship carried as many as 609 enslaved Africans.
布鲁克斯号奴隶船最多可运载 454 名奴隶，每人分配 6 英尺（1.8 m）乘 1 英尺 4 英寸（0.41 m）的空间；每个妇女的距离为 5 英尺 10 英寸（1.78 m）× 1 英尺 4 英寸（0.41 m），每个孩子的距离为 5 英尺（1.5 m）× 1 英尺 2 英寸（0.36 m），但一名奴隶贩子声称，在 1788 年之前，这艘船载有多达 609 名被奴役的非洲人。
Stowage of the British slave ship Brookes under the regulated slave trade act of 1788, 1789.
根据 1788 年和 1789 年奴隶贸易管制法案积载的英国奴隶船布鲁克斯号。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
The impact of the Middle Passage on the cultures of the Americas remains evident today.
中部航道对美洲文化的影响至今仍然显而易见。
Many foods associated with Africans, such as cassava, were originally imported to West Africa as part of the slave trade and were then adopted by African cooks before being brought to the Americas, where they are still consumed.
许多与非洲人相关的食物，例如木薯，最初作为奴隶贸易的一部分进口到西非，然后被非洲厨师采用，然后被带到美洲，并在那里仍然被消费。
West African rhythms and melodies live in new forms today in music as varied as religious spirituals and synthesized drumbeats.
如今，西非的节奏和旋律以新的形式存在于宗教灵歌和合成鼓声等多种多样的音乐中。
African influences appear in the basket making and language of the Gullah people on the Carolina coastal islands.
卡罗莱纳州沿海岛屿古拉人的篮子制作和语言都受到了非洲的影响。
Recent estimates count between eleven and twelve million Africans forced across the Atlantic between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, with about two million deaths at sea as well as an additional several million dying in the trade’s overland African leg or during seasoning.
最近的估计显示，在 16 世纪和 19 世纪之间，有 11 至 1200 万非洲人被迫横渡大西洋，其中约 200 万人死于海上，另外还有数百万人死于非洲陆路贸易或在调味过程中。
6 Conditions in all three legs of the slave trade were horrible, but the first abolitionists focused especially on the abuses of the Middle Passage.
6 奴隶贸易的所有三个阶段的情况都很可怕，但第一批废奴主义者特别关注中间航道的滥用情况。
Southern European trading empires like the Catalans and Aragonese were brought into contact with a Levantine commerce in sugar and enslaved laborers in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
加泰罗尼亚和阿拉贡等南欧贸易帝国在十四世纪和十五世纪与黎凡特的糖业和奴工贸易有了接触。
Europeans made the first steps toward an Atlantic slave trade in the 1440s when Portuguese sailors landed in West Africa in search of gold, spices, and allies against the Muslims who dominated Mediterranean trade.
1440 年代，欧洲人迈出了大西洋奴隶贸易的第一步，当时葡萄牙水手登陆西非，寻找黄金、香料，并寻求盟友来对抗主导地中海贸易的穆斯林。
Beginning in the 1440s, ship captains carried enslaved Africans to Portugal.
从 1440 年代开始，船长们将被奴役的非洲人运往葡萄牙。
These Africans were valued primarily as domestic servants, as peasants provided the primary agricultural labor force in Western Europe.
这些非洲人主要被视为家庭仆人，因为农民提供了西欧的主要农业劳动力。
7 European expansion into the Americas introduced both settlers and European authorities to a new situation—an abundance of land and a scarcity of labor.
7 欧洲向美洲的扩张给定居者和欧洲当局带来了新的局面——土地丰富而劳动力稀缺。
Portuguese, Dutch, and English ships became the conduits for Africans forced to America.
葡萄牙、荷兰和英国的船只成为非洲人被迫前往美洲的通道。
The western coast of Africa, the Gulf of Guinea, and the west-central coast were the sources of African captives.
非洲西海岸、几内亚湾和中西部海岸是非洲俘虏的来源地。
Wars of expansion and raiding parties produced captives who could be sold in coastal factories.
扩张战争和掠夺队伍产生了俘虏，这些俘虏可以在沿海工厂出售。
African slave traders bartered for European finished goods such as beads, cloth, rum, firearms, and metal wares.
非洲奴隶贩子用珠子、布料、朗姆酒、枪支和金属制品等欧洲制成品进行物物交换。
The first trading post built on the Gulf of Guinea and the oldest European building southern of the Sahara, Elmina Castle was established as a trade settlement by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century.
埃尔米纳城堡是在几内亚湾建立的第一个贸易站，也是撒哈拉以南最古老的欧洲建筑，埃尔米纳城堡是葡萄牙人于 15 世纪建立的贸易定居点。
The fort became one of the largest and most important markets for enslaved Africans along the Atlantic slave trade.
该堡垒成为大西洋奴隶贸易沿线非洲奴隶最大、最重要的市场之一。
“View of the castle of Elmina on the north-west side, seen from the river.
“从河边看到的埃尔米纳城堡西北侧的景色。
Located on the gold coast in Guinea,” in Atlas Blaeu van der Hem, c.
位于几内亚的黄金海岸”，载于 Atlas Blaeu van der Hem，c.
1665–1668.
1665–1668。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
Slavers often landed in the British West Indies, where enslaved laborers were seasoned in places like Barbados.
奴隶贩子经常登陆英属西印度群岛，被奴役的劳工在巴巴多斯等地经历了丰富的经验。
Charleston, South Carolina, became the leading entry point for the slave trade on the mainland.
南卡罗来纳州查尔斯顿成为大陆奴隶贸易的主要入口点。
The founding of Charleston (“Charles Town” until the 1780s) in 1670 was viewed as a serious threat by the Spanish in neighboring Florida, who began construction of Castillo de San Marcos in St. Augustine as a response.
1670 年查尔斯顿（“查尔斯镇”，直到 1780 年代）的建立被邻近佛罗里达州的西班牙人视为严重威胁，他们开始在圣奥古斯丁建造圣马科斯城堡作为回应。
In 1693 the Spanish king issued the Decree of Sanctuary, which granted freedom to enslaved people fleeing the English colonies if they converted to Catholicism and swore an oath of loyalty to Spain.
1693年，西班牙国王颁布了庇护令，规定逃离英国殖民地的奴隶如果皈依天主教并宣誓效忠西班牙，即可获得自由。
8 The presence of Africans who bore arms and served in the Spanish militia testifies to the different conceptions of race among the English and Spanish in America.
8 携带武器并在西班牙民兵中服役的非洲人的存在证明了美洲英国人和西班牙人之间不同的种族观念。
About 450,000 Africans landed in British North America, a relatively small portion of the eleven to twelve million victims of the trade.
大约有 45 万非洲人登陆英属北美，这在贸易的 11 至 1200 万受害者中只是相对较小的一部分。
9 As a proportion of the enslaved population, there were more enslaved women in North America than in other colonial enslaved populations.
9 从被奴役人口的比例来看，北美的被奴役妇女比其他殖民地的被奴役人口要多。
Enslaved African women also bore more children than their counterparts in the Caribbean or South America, facilitating the natural reproduction of enslaved people on the North American continent.
非洲奴隶妇女比加勒比海或南美洲的奴隶生育更多的孩子，促进了北美大陆奴隶的自然繁殖。
10 A 1662 Virginia law stated that an enslaved woman’s children inherited the “condition” of their mother; other colonies soon passed similar statutes.
10 弗吉尼亚州 1662 年的一项法律规定，奴隶妇女的孩子继承了其母亲的“条件”；其他殖民地很快也通过了类似的法规。
11 This economic strategy on the part of planters created a legal system in which all children born to enslaved women would be enslaved for life, whether the father was white or Black, enslaved or free.
11 种植园主的这种经济策略创造了一种法律制度，在该制度中，所有被奴役妇女所生的孩子都将终身受奴役，无论父亲是白人还是黑人，被奴役还是自由人。
Most fundamentally, the emergence of modern notions of race was closely related to the colonization of the Americas and the slave trade.
最根本的是，现代种族观念的出现与美洲殖民和奴隶贸易密切相关。
African slave traders lacked a firm category of race that might have led them to think that they were selling their own people, in much the same way that Native Americans did not view other Indigenous groups as part of the same “race.” Similarly, most English citizens felt no racial identification with the Irish or the even the Welsh.
非洲奴隶贩子缺乏明确的种族类别，这可能会让他们认为他们在出卖自己的人民，就像美洲原住民不将其他土著群体视为同一“种族”的一部分一样。同样，大多数英国公民对爱尔兰人甚至威尔士人都没有种族认同感。
The modern idea of race as an inherited physical difference (most often skin color) that is used to support systems of oppression was new in the early modern Atlantic world.
现代早期的大西洋世界中，种族作为一种遗传的身体差异（最常见的是肤色）用于支持压迫制度是新的。
In the early years of slavery, especially in the South, the distinction between indentured servants and enslaved people was initially unclear.
在奴隶制的早期，特别是在南方，契约仆人和奴隶之间的区别最初并不明确。
In 1643, however, a law was passed in Virginia that made African women “tithable.” 12 This, in effect, associated African women’s work with difficult agricultural labor.
然而，1643 年，弗吉尼亚州通过了一项法律，规定非洲妇女“需缴纳什一税”。 12 这实际上将非洲妇女的工作与艰苦的农业劳动联系在一起。
There was no similar tax levied on white women; the law was an attempt to distinguish white women from African women.
对白人女性没有征收类似的税；该法律试图将白人妇女与非洲妇女区分开来。
The English ideal was to have enough hired hands and servants working on a farm so that wives and daughters did not have to partake in manual labor.
英国人的理想是有足够的雇工和仆人在农场工作，这样妻子和女儿就不必参与体力劳动。
Instead, white women were expected to labor in dairy sheds, small gardens, and kitchens.
相反，白人妇女应该在奶牛棚、小花园和厨房里劳动。
Of course, because of the labor shortage in early America, white women did participate in field labor.
当然，由于美国早期劳动力短缺，白人女性确实参与了野外劳动。
But this idealized gendered division of labor contributed to the English conceiving of themselves as better than other groups who did not divide labor in this fashion, including the West Africans arriving in slave ships to the colonies.
但这种理想化的性别劳动分工使英国人认为自己比其他不以这种方式分工的群体更好，包括乘坐奴隶船到达殖民地的西非人。
For many white colonists, the association of a gendered division of labor with Englishness provided a further justification for the enslavement and subordination of Africans.
对于许多白人殖民者来说，性别分工与英国性的联系为非洲人的奴役和从属提供了进一步的理由。
Ideas about the rule of the household were informed by legal and customary understandings of marriage and the home in England.
有关家庭规则的观念受到英国对婚姻和家庭的法律和习惯理解的影响。
A man was expected to hold “paternal dominion” over his household, which included his wife, children, servants, and enslaved laborers.
男人被期望对他的家庭拥有“父亲的统治权”，包括他的妻子、孩子、仆人和奴隶劳工。
In contrast, enslaved people were not legally masters of a household and were therefore subject to the authority of the white enslaver.
相比之下，被奴役的人在法律上不是家庭的主人，因此受到白人奴隶主的权威的管辖。
Marriages between enslaved people were not recognized in colonial law.
殖民地法律不承认奴隶之间的婚姻。
Some enslaved men and women married “abroad”; that is, they married individuals who were not owned by the same enslaver and did not live on the same plantation.
一些被奴役的男女在“国外”结婚；也就是说，他们与不属于同一个奴隶主、也不住在同一个种植园的人结婚。
These husbands and wives had to travel miles at a time, typically only once a week on Sundays, to visit their spouses.
这些丈夫和妻子必须一次长途跋涉，通常每周只在周日一次，才能探望他们的配偶。
Legal or religious authority did not protect these marriages, and enslavers could refuse to let their enslaved laborers visit a spouse, or even sell an enslaved person to a new enslaver hundreds of miles away from their spouse and children.
法律或宗教权威并不保护这些婚姻，奴隶主可以拒绝让被奴役的劳工探望配偶，甚至可以将被奴役的人卖给距离他们的配偶和孩子数百英里的新奴隶主。
Within the patriarchal and exploitative colonial environment, enslaved men and women struggled to establish families and communities.
在父权制和剥削性的殖民环境中，被奴役的男女努力建立家庭和社区。
Religious conflict plagued sixteenth-century England.
宗教冲突困扰着十六世纪的英国。
While Spain plundered the New World and built an empire, Catholic and Protestant English monarchs vied for supremacy and attacked their opponents as heretics.
当西班牙掠夺新大陆并建立帝国时，天主教和新教英国君主争夺霸权，并攻击对手为异端。
Queen Elizabeth cemented Protestantism as the official religion of the realm, but questions endured as to what kind of Protestantism would hold sway.
伊丽莎白女王巩固了新教作为该国官方宗教的地位，但关于哪种新教将占据主导地位的问题仍然存在。
Many radical Protestants (often called “Puritans” by their critics) looked to the New World as an opportunity to create a beacon of Calvinist Christianity, while others continued the struggle in England.
许多激进的新教徒（通常被批评者称为“清教徒”）将新世界视为创建加尔文基督教灯塔的机会，而其他人则继续在英国进行斗争。
By the 1640s, political and economic conflicts between Parliament and the Crown merged with long-simmering religious tensions, made worse by a king who seemed sympathetic to Catholicism.
到了 1640 年代，议会和王室之间的政治和经济冲突与长期酝酿的宗教紧张局势交织在一起，而一位似乎同情天主教的国王则使情况变得更糟。
The result was a bloody civil war.
结果是一场血腥的内战。
Colonists reacted in a variety of ways as England waged war on itself, but all were affected by these decades of turmoil.
当英国向自己发动战争时，殖民者以各种方式做出反应，但所有人都受到了这几十年的动乱的影响。
Between 1629 and 1640 the absolute rule of Charles I caused considerable friction between the English Parliament and the king.
1629年至1640年间，查理一世的绝对统治在英国议会和国王之间造成了相当大的摩擦。
Conflict erupted in 1640 when a Parliament called by Charles refused to grant him subsidies to suppress a rebellion in Scotland.
1640 年，查尔斯召集的议会拒绝向他提供镇压苏格兰叛乱的补贴，冲突由此爆发。
The Irish rebelled the following year, and by 1642 strained relations between Charles and Parliament led to civil war in England.
次年，爱尔兰人叛乱，到 1642 年，查理和议会之间的紧张关系导致了英格兰内战。
In 1649 Parliament won, Charles I was executed, and England became a republic and protectorate under Oliver Cromwell.
1649 年，议会获胜，查理一世被处决，英格兰成为奥利弗·克伦威尔领导下的共和国和保护国。
These changes redefined England’s relationship with its American colonies, as the new government under Cromwell attempted to consolidate its hold over its overseas territories.
这些变化重新定义了英国与其美洲殖民地的关系，克伦威尔领导下的新政府试图巩固其对海外领土的控制。
In 1642, no permanent British North American colony was more than thirty-five years old.
1642 年，英属北美永久殖民地的历史还没有超过三十五岁。
The Crown and various proprietors controlled most of the colonies, but settlers from Barbados to Maine enjoyed a great deal of independence.
王室和各种业主控制了大部分殖民地，但从巴巴多斯到缅因州的定居者享有很大的独立性。
This was especially true in Massachusetts Bay, where Puritan settlers governed themselves according to the colony’s 1629 charter.
在马萨诸塞湾尤其如此，清教徒定居者根据该殖民地 1629 年的宪章进行自我管理。
Trade in tobacco and naval stores tied the colonies to England economically, as did religion and political culture, but in general the English government left the colonies to their own devices.
烟草和海军商店的贸易在经济上将殖民地与英国联系在一起，宗教和政治文化也是如此，但总的来说，英国政府让殖民地自行其是。
The English Revolution of the 1640s forced settlers in America to reconsider their place within the empire.
1640 年代的英国革命迫使美洲定居者重新考虑他们在帝国中的地位。
Older colonies like Virginia and proprietary colonies like Maryland sympathized with the Crown.
像弗吉尼亚这样的老殖民地和像马里兰这样的专有殖民地都同情英国王室。
Newer colonies like Massachusetts Bay, populated by religious dissenters taking part in the Great Migration of the 1630s, tended to favor Parliament.
马萨诸塞湾等较新的殖民地，居住着参加 1630 年代大迁徙的宗教异见者，因此倾向于支持议会。
Yet during the war the colonies remained neutral, fearing that support for either side could involve them in war.
然而在战争期间，殖民地保持中立，担心对任何一方的支持都会使他们卷入战争。
Even Massachusetts Bay, which nurtured ties to radical Protestants in Parliament, remained neutral.
甚至与议会中激进新教徒建立联系的马萨诸塞湾也保持中立。
King Charles I, pictured with the blue sash of the Order of the Garter, listens to his commanders detail the strategy for what would be the first pitched battle of the First English Civil War.
照片中佩戴着嘉德勋章的蓝色腰带的查理一世国王，正在聆听他的指挥官详细介绍第一次英国内战第一场激战的战略。
As all previous constitutional compromises between King Charles and Parliament had broken down, both sides raised large armies in the hopes of forcing the other side to concede their position.
由于查理国王和议会之前的所有宪法妥协都已破裂，双方都集结了大军，希望迫使对方让步。
The Battle of Edgehill ended with no clear winner, leading to a prolonged war of over four years and an even longer series of wars (known generally as the English Civil War) that eventually established the Commonwealth of England in 1649.
埃奇希尔之战没有明显的胜利者，导致了一场长达四年多的长期战争和一系列更长的战争（通常称为英国内战），最终于 1649 年建立了英格兰联邦。
Charles Landseer, The Eve of the Battle of Edge Hill,1642, 1845.
查尔斯·兰西尔，《边缘山战役前夕》，1642 年，1845 年。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
Charles’s execution in 1649 challenged American neutrality.
1649 年查尔斯的处决挑战了美国的中立态度。
Six colonies, including Virginia and Barbados, declared allegiance to the dead monarch’s son, Charles II.
包括弗吉尼亚和巴巴多斯在内的六个殖民地宣布效忠已故君主的儿子查理二世。
Parliament responded with an act in 1650 that leveled an economic embargo on the rebelling colonies, forcing them to accept Parliament’s authority.
1650 年，议会做出回应，对叛乱的殖民地实施经济禁运，迫使他们接受议会的权威。
Parliament argued that America had been “planted at the Cost, and settled” by the English nation, and that it, as the embodiment of that commonwealth, possessed ultimate jurisdiction over the colonies.
议会认为，美洲是英国民族“不惜代价种植并定居”的，作为英联邦的体现，它对殖民地拥有最终管辖权。
13 It followed up the embargo with the Navigation Act of 1651, which compelled merchants in every colony to ship goods directly to England in English ships.
13 紧随禁运之后，它颁布了 1651 年《航海法》，迫使每个殖民地的商人用英国船只将货物直接运往英国。
Parliament sought to bind the colonies more closely to England and prevent other European nations, especially the Dutch, from interfering with its American possessions.
议会试图将殖民地与英国更紧密地结合在一起，并防止其他欧洲国家，特别是荷兰人干涉其美洲领地。
England found itself in crisis after the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1658, leading in time to the reestablishment of the monarchy.
1658 年奥利弗·克伦威尔 (Oliver Cromwell) 去世后，英格兰陷入危机，最终导致了君主制的重建。
On his thirtieth birthday (May 29, 1660), Charles II sailed from the Netherlands to his restoration after nine years in exile.
在查理二世三十岁生日那天（1660 年 5 月 29 日），查理二世从荷兰启航，在流亡九年后复辟。
He was received in London to great acclaim, as depicted in this contemporary painting.
正如这幅当代画作所描绘的那样，他在伦敦受到了极大的好评。
Lieve Verschuler, The Arrival of King Charles II of England in Rotterdam, 24 May 1660.
Lieve Verschuler，英国国王查理二世抵达鹿特丹，1660 年 5 月 24 日。
c.
c.
1660–1665.
1660–1665。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
The monarchy was restored with Charles II, but popular suspicions of the Crown’s Catholic and French sympathies lingered.
查理二世恢复了君主制，但民众对王室天主教徒和法国同情心的怀疑依然存在。
Charles II’s suppression of the religious and press freedoms that flourished during the civil war years demonstrated the Crown’s desire to reimpose order and royal rule.
查理二世对内战时期盛行的宗教和新闻自由的压制表明了国王恢复秩序和王室统治的愿望。
But it was the openly Catholic and pro-French policies of his successor, James II, that once again led to the overthrow of the monarchy in 1688.
但他的继任者詹姆斯二世公开的天主教和亲法政策再次导致 1688 年君主制的推翻。
In that year a group of bishops and Parliamentarians offered the English throne to the Dutch Prince William of Holland and his English bride, Mary, the daughter of James II.
那一年，一群主教和议员将英国王位授予荷兰王子威廉和他的英国新娘詹姆斯二世的女儿玛丽。
This coup was called the Glorious Revolution and was accomplished with little bloodshed in England, but considerable warfare in Ireland.
这场政变被称为“光荣革命”，在英格兰几乎没有流血，但在爱尔兰却发生了相当大的战争。
In the decades before the Glorious Revolution, English colonists experienced religious and political conflict that reflected transformations in Europe as well as distinctly colonial conditions.
在光荣革命之前的几十年里，英国殖民者经历了宗教和政治冲突，这反映了欧洲的变革以及明显的殖民状况。
In the 1670s and early 1680s, King Charles II tightened English control over North America and the West Indies through the creation of new colonies, the imposition of new Navigation Acts, and the establishment of a new executive council called the Lords of Trade and Plantations.
1670 年代和 1680 年代初，查理二世国王通过创建新殖民地、实施新的航海法案以及建立一个名为“贸易和种植园勋爵”的新执行委员会，加强了英国对北美和西印度群岛的控制。
14 As imperial officials attempted to curb colonists’ autonomy, threats from Native Americans and New France on the continent led many colonists to believe that Native Americans and Catholics sought to destroy English America.
14 当帝国官员试图限制殖民者的自治权时，美洲原住民和新法兰西在非洲大陆的威胁导致许多殖民者相信美洲原住民和天主教徒试图摧毁英属美洲。
In New England an uprising beginning in 1675 led by the Wampanoag leader Metacom, or King Philip as the English called him, seemed to confirm these fears.
1675 年，新英格兰万帕诺亚格人领袖梅塔科姆（英国人称他为菲利普国王）领导的起义似乎证实了这些担忧。
Conflicts with Native Americans helped trigger the revolt against royal authorities known as Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia the following year.
与美洲原住民的冲突引发了次年弗吉尼亚州针对王室当局的叛乱，称为培根叛乱。
James II worked to place the colonies on firmer administrative and defensive footing by creating the Dominion of New England in 1686.
詹姆斯二世于 1686 年建立了新英格兰自治领，努力使殖民地的行政和防御地位更加稳固。
The Dominion consolidated the New England colonies, New York, and New Jersey into one administrative unit to counter French Canada, but colonists strongly resented the loss of their individual provinces.
自治领将新英格兰殖民地、纽约和新泽西合并为一个行政单位，以对抗法属加拿大，但殖民者对失去各自的省份感到强烈不满。
The Dominion’s governor, Sir Edmund Andros, did little to assuage fears of arbitrary power when he forced colonists into military service for a campaign against Native Americans in Maine in early 1687.
1687 年初，自治领总督埃德蒙·安德罗斯 (Edmund Andros) 爵士强迫殖民者服兵役，参加缅因州针对美洲原住民的战役，但他并没有采取任何措施来缓解人们对专制权力的担忧。
Impressment into military service was a long-standing grievance among English commoners that was transplanted to the colonies.
强迫服兵役是英国平民中长期存在的不满情绪，这种不满情绪也转移到了殖民地。
In England, James’s push for religious toleration of Catholics and dissenters brought him into conflict with Parliament and the Anglican establishment in England.
在英国，詹姆斯推动对天主教徒和持不同政见者的宗教宽容，这使他与英国议会和英国圣公会机构发生了冲突。
After the 1688 invasion by the Protestant William of Orange, James fled to France.
1688 年新教徒奥兰治威廉入侵后，詹姆斯逃往法国。
When colonists learned imperial officials in Boston and New York City attempted to keep news of the Glorious Revolution secret, simmering hostilities toward provincial leaders burst into the open.
当殖民者得知波士顿和纽约市的帝国官员试图对光荣革命的消息保密时，针对省级领导人的敌对情绪就爆发了。
In Massachusetts, New York, and Maryland, colonists overthrew colonial governments as local social antagonisms fused with popular animosity toward imperial rule.
在马萨诸塞州、纽约州和马里兰州，当地社会对立与民众对帝国统治的敌意交织在一起，殖民者推翻了殖民政府。
Colonists in America quickly declared allegiance to the new monarchs.
美洲的殖民者很快宣布效忠新君主。
They did so in part to maintain order in their respective colonies.
他们这样做的部分原因是为了维持各自殖民地的秩序。
As one Virginia official explained, if there was “no King in England, there was no Government here.” 15 A declaration of allegiance was therefore a means toward stability.
正如弗吉尼亚州一位官员解释的那样，如果“英格兰没有国王，那么这里就没有政府”。 15 因此，宣誓效忠是实现稳定的一种手段。
More importantly, colonists declared for William and Mary because they believed that their ascension marked the rejection of absolutism and confirmed the centrality of Protestantism and liberty in English life.
更重要的是，殖民者宣布支持威廉和玛丽，因为他们相信他们的登基标志着对专制主义的拒绝，并证实了新教和自由在英国生活中的中心地位。
Settlers joined in the revolution by overthrowing the Dominion government, restoring the provinces to their previous status, and forcing out the Catholic-dominated Maryland government.
定居者加入了革命，推翻了自治领政府，将各省恢复到以前的地位，并赶出了天主教主导的马里兰州政府。
They launched several assaults against French Canada as part of King William’s War and rejoiced in Parliament’s 1689 passage of a Bill of Rights, which curtailed the power of the monarchy and cemented Protestantism in England.
作为威廉国王战争的一部分，他们对法属加拿大发动了数次袭击，并对议会 1689 年通过的《权利法案》感到高兴，该法案削弱了君主制的权力，巩固了英国的新教。
For English colonists, it was indeed a “glorious” revolution as it united them in a Protestant empire that stood counter to Catholic tyranny, absolutism, and French power.
对于英国殖民者来说，这确实是一场“光荣”的革命，因为它将他们团结在一个新教帝国中，反对天主教的暴政、专制主义和法国的强权。
Despite the turmoil in Britain, colonial settlement grew considerably throughout the seventeenth century, and several new settlements joined the two original colonies of Virginia and Massachusetts.
尽管英国发生动荡，殖民地定居点在整个十七世纪仍大幅增长，并且几个新的定居点加入了弗吉尼亚和马萨诸塞州这两个最初的殖民地。
In 1632, Charles I set a tract of about 12 million acres of land at the northern tip of the Chesapeake Bay aside for a second colony in America.
1632 年，查理一世在切萨皮克湾北端划出一块约 1200 万英亩的土地，作为美洲的第二个殖民地。
Named for the new monarch’s queen, Maryland was granted to Charles’s friend and political ally, Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore.
马里兰州以新君主的女王命名，被授予查尔斯的朋友和政治盟友、第二任巴尔的摩勋爵塞西利厄斯·卡尔弗特。
Calvert hoped to gain additional wealth from the colony, as well as to create a haven for fellow Catholics.
卡尔弗特希望从殖民地获得更多财富，并为天主教徒创造一个避风港。
In England, many of that faith found themselves harassed by the Protestant majority and more than a few considered migrating to America.
在英国，许多这种信仰的人发现自己受到了占多数的新教的骚扰，不少人考虑移民到美国。
Charles I, a Catholic sympathizer, was in favor of Lord Baltimore’s plan to create a colony that would demonstrate that Catholics and Protestants could live together peacefully.
天主教同情者查理一世支持巴尔的摩勋爵创建殖民地的计划，以证明天主教徒和新教徒可以和平共处。
In late 1633, both Protestant and Catholic settlers left England for the Chesapeake, arriving in Maryland in March 1634.
1633 年末，新教和天主教定居者离开英格兰前往切萨皮克，并于 1634 年 3 月抵达马里兰州。
Men of middling means found greater opportunities in Maryland, which prospered as a tobacco colony without the growing pains suffered by Virginia.
中等收入的人在马里兰州找到了更多的机会，马里兰州作为烟草殖民地而繁荣，没有弗吉尼亚遭受的成长烦恼。
Unfortunately, Lord Baltimore’s hopes of a diverse Christian colony were thwarted.
不幸的是，巴尔的摩勋爵建立一个多元化基督教殖民地的希望落空了。
Most colonists were Protestants relocating from Virginia.
大多数殖民者是从弗吉尼亚迁居的新教徒。
Many of these Protestants were radical Quakers and Puritans who were frustrated with Virginia’s efforts to force adherence to the Anglican Church, also known as the Church of England.
这些新教徒中有许多是激进的贵格会教徒和清教徒，他们对弗吉尼亚强迫人们遵守英国圣公会（也称为英国国教）的努力感到沮丧。
In 1650, Puritans revolted, setting up a new government that prohibited both Catholicism and Anglicanism.
1650年，清教徒起义，成立了新政府，禁止天主教和英国国教。
Governor William Stone attempted to put down the revolt in 1655 but was not successful until 1658.
1655 年，总督威廉·斯通 (William Stone) 试图镇压叛乱，但直到 1658 年才成功。
Two years after the Glorious Revolution (1688–1689), the Calverts lost control of Maryland and the province became a royal colony.
光荣革命（1688-1689）两年后，卡尔弗特家族失去了对马里兰州的控制，该省成为皇家殖民地。
Religion was a motivating factor in the creation of several other colonies as well, including the New England colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island.
宗教也是其他几个殖民地创建的推动因素，包括康涅狄格州和罗德岛州的新英格兰殖民地。
The settlements that would eventually compose Connecticut grew out of settlements in Saybrook and New Haven.
最终构成康涅狄格州的定居点是从塞布鲁克和纽黑文的定居点发展而来的。
Thomas Hooker and his congregation left Massachusetts for Connecticut because the area around Boston was becoming increasingly crowded.
托马斯·胡克和他的会众离开马萨诸塞州前往康涅狄格州，因为波士顿周边地区变得越来越拥挤。
The Connecticut River Valley was large enough for more cattle and agriculture.
康涅狄格河谷足够大，可以容纳更多的牲畜和农业。
In June 1636, Hooker led one hundred people and a variety of livestock in settling an area they called Newtown (later Hartford).
1636 年 6 月，胡克带领一百人和各种牲畜在他们称为纽敦（后来的哈特福德）的地区定居。
New Haven Colony had a more directly religious origin, as the founders attempted a new experiment in Puritanism.
纽黑文殖民地有更直接的宗教起源，因为创始人尝试了清教主义的新实验。
In 1638, John Davenport, Theophilus Eaton, and other supporters of the Puritan faith settled in the Quinnipiac River Valley (New Haven) area of Connecticut.
1638年，约翰·达文波特、西奥菲勒斯·伊顿和其他清教徒信仰的支持者在康涅狄格州的昆尼皮亚克河谷（纽黑文）地区定居。
In 1643 New Haven Colony was officially organized, with Eaton named governor.
1643 年，纽黑文殖民地正式成立，伊顿被任命为总督。
In the early 1660s, three men who had signed the death warrant for Charles I were concealed in New Haven.
1660 年代初期，签署查理一世死刑令的三名男子被隐藏在纽黑文。
This did not win the colony any favors, and it became increasingly poorer and weaker.
这并没有为殖民地赢得任何好处，反而变得越来越穷、越来越弱。
In 1665, New Haven was absorbed into Connecticut, but its singular religious tradition endured with the creation of Yale College.
1665 年，纽黑文并入康涅狄格州，但其独特的宗教传统随着耶鲁大学的创建而得以延续。
Religious radicals similarly founded Rhode Island.
宗教激进分子同样创立了罗德岛州。
After his exile from Massachusetts, Roger Williams created a settlement called Providence in 1636.
罗杰·威廉姆斯 (Roger Williams) 从马萨诸塞州流亡后，于 1636 年建立了一个名为普罗维登斯 (Providence) 的定居点。
He negotiated for the land with the local Narragansett sachems Canonicus and Miantonomi.
他与当地纳拉甘西特酋长卡尼库斯 (Canonicus) 和米安托诺米 (Miantonomi) 就这块土地进行了谈判。
Williams and his fellow settlers agreed on an egalitarian constitution and established religious and political freedom in the colony.
威廉姆斯和他的定居者同胞们商定了一部平等主义宪法，并在殖民地建立了宗教和政治自由。
The following year, another Massachusetts exile, Anne Hutchinson, and her followers settled near Providence.
次年，另一位马萨诸塞州流亡者安妮·哈钦森和她的追随者在普罗维登斯附近定居。
Others soon arrived, and the colony was granted a charter by Parliament in 1644.
其他人很快就抵达了，议会于 1644 年授予了该殖民地特许状。
Persistently independent and with republican sympathies, the settlers refused a governor and instead elected a president and council.
定居者坚持独立并出于对共和党的同情，拒绝任命总督，而是选举了总统和议会。
These separate communities passed laws abolishing witchcraft trials, imprisonment for debt and, in 1652, chattel slavery.
这些不同的社区通过了法律，废除了巫术审判、债务监禁以及 1652 年动产奴隶制。
Because of the colony’s policy of toleration, it became a haven for Quakers, Jews, and other persecuted religious groups.
由于殖民地的宽容政策，它成为贵格会教徒、犹太人和其他受迫害宗教团体的避难所。
In 1663, Charles II granted the colony a royal charter establishing the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.
1663 年，查理二世授予该殖民地皇家特许状，建立罗德岛殖民地和普罗维登斯种植园。
Until the middle of the seventeenth century, the English neglected the area between Virginia and New England despite obvious environmental advantages.
直到十七世纪中叶，尽管弗吉尼亚和新英格兰之间的地区具有明显的环境优势，英国人还是忽视了这一地区。
The climate was healthier than the Chesapeake and more temperate than New England.
气候比切萨皮克更健康，比新英格兰更温和。
The mid-Atlantic had three highly navigable rivers: the Susquehanna, the Delaware, and the Hudson.
大西洋中部有三条高度通航的河流：萨斯奎哈纳河、特拉华河和哈德逊河。
The Swedes and Dutch established their own colonies in the region: New Sweden in the Delaware Valley and New Netherland in the Hudson Valley.
瑞典人和荷兰人在该地区建立了自己的殖民地：特拉华河谷的新瑞典和哈德逊河谷的新荷兰。
Compared to other Dutch colonies around the globe, the settlements on the Hudson River were relatively minor.
与全球其他荷兰殖民地相比，哈得逊河上的定居点相对较小。
The Dutch West India Company realized that in order to secure its fur trade in the area, it needed to establish a greater presence in New Netherland.
荷兰西印度公司意识到，为了确保该地区的毛皮贸易，它需要在新荷兰建立更大的影响力。
Toward this end, the company formed New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island in 1625.
为此，公司于 1625 年在曼哈顿岛成立了新阿姆斯特丹。
Although the Dutch extended religious tolerance to those who settled in New Netherland, the population remained small.
尽管荷兰人对新荷兰定居者实行宗教宽容，但人口仍然很少。
This left the colony vulnerable to English attack during the 1650s and 1660s, resulting in the handover of New Netherland to England in 1664.
这使得该殖民地在 1650 年代和 1660 年代容易受到英国的攻击，导致新荷兰于 1664 年移交给英国。
The new colony of New York was named for the proprietor, James, the Duke of York, brother to Charles II and funder of the expedition against the Dutch in 1664.
纽约新殖民地以业主约克公爵詹姆斯命名，他是查理二世的兄弟，也是 1664 年远征荷兰的资助者。
New York was briefly reconquered by the Netherlands in 1667, and class and ethnic conflicts in New York City contributed to the rebellion against English authorities during the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689.
1667 年，纽约短暂地被荷兰重新征服，纽约市的阶级和种族冲突导致了 1688 年至 1689 年光荣革命期间反抗英国当局的反抗。
Colonists of Dutch ancestry resisted assimilation into English culture well into the eighteenth century, prompting New York Anglicans to note that the colony was “rather like a conquered foreign province.” 16
直到十八世纪，荷兰血统的殖民者一直抵制英国文化的同化，这促使纽约圣公会人士指出，这个殖民地“更像是一个被征服的外国省份”。 16
After the acquisition of New Netherland, Charles II and the Duke of York wished to strengthen English control over the Atlantic seaboard.
收购新荷兰后，查理二世和约克公爵希望加强英国对大西洋沿岸的控制。
In theory, this was to better tax the colonies; in practice, the awarding of the new proprietary colonies of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas was a payoff of debts and political favors.
从理论上讲，这是为了更好地向殖民地征税；实际上，授予新泽西州、宾夕法尼亚州和卡罗来纳州新的专有殖民地是债务和政治恩惠的偿还。
In 1664, the Duke of York granted the area between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to two English noblemen.
1664年，约克公爵将哈德逊河和特拉华河之间的地区授予两位英国贵族。
These lands were split into two distinct colonies, East Jersey and West Jersey.
这些土地被分成两个不同的殖民地：东泽西和西泽西。
One of West Jersey’s proprietors included William Penn.
西泽西的业主之一包括威廉·佩恩 (William Penn)。
The ambitious Penn wanted his own, larger colony, the lands for which would be granted by both Charles II and the Duke of York.
雄心勃勃的佩恩想要拥有自己的更大的殖民地，查理二世和约克公爵都将授予这些土地。
Pennsylvania consisted of about forty-five thousand square miles west of the Delaware River and the former New Sweden.
宾夕法尼亚州由特拉华河以西和前新瑞典约四万五千平方英里组成。
Penn was a member of the Society of Friends, otherwise known as Quakers, and he intended his colony to be a “colony of Heaven for the children of Light.” 17 Like New England’s aspirations to be a City Upon a Hill, Pennsylvania was to be an example of godliness.
佩恩是公谊会（也称为贵格会）的成员，他希望他的殖民地成为“光之子的天堂殖民地”。 17 就像新英格兰渴望成为山上之城一样，宾夕法尼亚州也希望成为敬虔的典范。
But Penn’s dream was to create not a colony of unity but rather a colony of harmony.
但佩恩的梦想不是创建一个团结的殖民地，而是一个和谐的殖民地。
He noted in 1685 that “the people are a collection of diverse nations in Europe, as French, Dutch, Germans, Swedes, Danes, Finns, Scotch, and English; and of the last equal to all the rest.” 18 Because Quakers in Pennsylvania extended to others in America the same rights they had demanded for themselves in England, the colony attracted a diverse collection of migrants.
他在 1685 年指出，“人民是欧洲不同民族的集合，如法国人、荷兰人、德国人、瑞典人、丹麦人、芬兰人、苏格兰人和英国人；最后一个民族与其他民族平等。” 18 由于宾夕法尼亚州的贵格会教徒向美国的其他人提供了他们在英国所要求的同样的权利，因此这个殖民地吸引了各种各样的移民。
Slavery was particularly troublesome for some pacifist Quakers of Pennsylvania on the grounds that it required violence.
对于宾夕法尼亚州的一些和平主义贵格会教徒来说，奴隶制尤其麻烦，因为它需要暴力。
In 1688, members of the Society of Friends in Germantown, outside Philadelphia, signed a petition protesting the institution of slavery among fellow Quakers.
1688 年，费城郊外日耳曼敦的公谊会成员签署了一份请愿书，抗议贵格会同胞中的奴隶制。
The Pennsylvania soil did not lend itself to the slave-based agriculture of the Chesapeake, but other colonies depended heavily on slavery from their very foundations.
宾夕法尼亚州的土壤不适合切萨皮克的奴隶制农业，但其他殖民地从一开始就严重依赖奴隶制。
The creation of the colony of Carolina, later divided into North and South Carolina and Georgia, was part of Charles II’s scheme to strengthen the English hold on the Eastern Seaboard and pay off political and cash debts.
卡罗莱纳殖民地的创建，后来分为北卡罗来纳州、南卡罗来纳州和佐治亚州，是查理二世加强英国对东海岸控制并偿还政治和现金债务计划的一部分。
The Lords Proprietor of Carolina—eight powerful favorites of the king—used the model of the colonization of Barbados to settle the area.
卡罗莱纳州的领主——国王最喜爱的八位有权有势的人——采用了巴巴多斯殖民化的模式来定居该地区。
In 1670, three ships of colonists from Barbados arrived at the mouth of the Ashley River, where they founded Charles Town.
1670年，三艘来自巴巴多斯的殖民者船只抵达阿什利河河口，并在那里建立了查尔斯镇。
This defiance of Spanish claims to the area signified England’s growing confidence as a colonial power.
这种对西班牙对该地区主权主张的蔑视标志着英国作为殖民大国的信心不断增强。
To attract colonists, the Lords Proprietor offered alluring incentives: religious tolerance, political representation by assembly, exemption from fees, and large land grants.
为了吸引殖民者，领主提供了诱人的激励措施：宗教宽容、议会政治代表、免除费用和大量土地赠予。
These incentives worked, and Carolina grew quickly, attracting not only middling farmers and artisans but also wealthy planters.
这些激励措施发挥了作用，卡罗来纳州迅速发展，不仅吸引了中等农民和工匠，还吸引了富有的种植园主。
Colonists who could pay their own way to Carolina were granted 150 acres per family member.
能够自费前往卡罗来纳州的殖民者，每名家庭成员可获得 150 英亩的土地。
The Lords Proprietor allowed for enslaved people to be counted as members of the family.
领主允许被奴役的人算作家庭成员。
This encouraged the creation of large rice and indigo plantations along the coast of Carolina; these were more stable commodities than deerskins and enslaved Native Americans.
这鼓励了卡罗莱纳州沿海地区建立大型水稻和靛蓝种植园；这些是比鹿皮和被奴役的美洲原住民更稳定的商品。
Because of the size of Carolina, the authority of the Lords Proprietor was especially weak in the northern reaches on Albemarle Sound.
由于卡罗来纳州幅员辽阔，领主的权威在阿尔伯马尔海峡北部地区尤其薄弱。
This region had been settled by Virginians in the 1650s and was increasingly resistant to Carolina authority.
该地区于 1650 年代由弗吉尼亚人定居，并且日益抵制卡罗来纳州的权威。
As a result, the Lords Proprietor founded the separate province of North Carolina in 1691.
结果，领主于 1691 年建立了独立的北卡罗来纳省。
19
19
Henry Popple, A map of the British Empire in America with the French and Spanish settlements adjacent thereto, 1733.
亨利·波普尔 (Henry Popple)，大英帝国在美洲地图以及邻近的法国和西班牙定居点，1733 年。
Library of Congress .
国会图书馆。
The seventeenth century saw the establishment and solidification of the British North American colonies, but this process did not occur peacefully.
十七世纪见证了英属北美殖民地的建立和巩固，但这一过程并不是和平发生的。
English settlements on the continent were rocked by explosions of violence, including the Pequot War, the Mystic massacre, King Philip’s War, the Susquehannock War, Bacon’s Rebellion, and the Pueblo Revolt.
英国在非洲大陆的定居点因暴力事件的爆发而震动，包括皮科特战争、神秘大屠杀、菲利普国王战争、萨斯奎汉诺克战争、培根叛乱和普韦布洛起义。
In May 1637, an armed contingent of English Puritans from Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Connecticut colonies trekked into Native American territory that was claimed by New England.
1637 年 5 月，一支来自马萨诸塞湾、普利茅斯和康涅狄格殖民地的英国清教徒武装分队长途跋涉进入新英格兰声称拥有主权的美洲原住民领土。
Referring to themselves as the “Sword of the Lord,” this military force intended to attack “that insolent and barbarous Nation, called the Pequots.” In the resulting violence, Puritans put the Mystic community to the torch, beginning with the north and south ends of the town.
这支军队自称为“上帝之剑”，旨在攻击“那个傲慢而野蛮的国家，称为佩科特人”。在由此产生的暴力事件中，清教徒将神秘社区烧毁，从城镇的南北两端开始。
As Pequot men, women, and children tried to escape the blaze, other soldiers waited with swords and guns.
当佩克特男人、女人和儿童试图逃离大火时，其他士兵拿着刀剑等待着。
One commander estimated that of the “four hundred souls in this Fort .
一位指挥官估计“这座堡垒里有四百个灵魂。”
.
。
.
。
not above five of them escaped out of our hands,” although another counted near “six or seven hundred” dead.
其中不超过五人从我们手中逃脱，”尽管据另一人统计，死亡人数接近“六七百人”。
In a span of less than two months, the English Puritans boasted that the Pequot “were drove out of their country, and slain by the sword, to the number of fifteen hundred.” 20
在不到两个月的时间里，英国清教徒吹嘘说，佩克特人“被赶出了他们的国家，并被刀剑杀害，人数达到一千五百人”。 20
The foundations of the war lay within the rivalry between the Pequot, the Narragansett, and the Mohegan, who battled for control of the fur and wampum trades in the northeast.
战争的根源在于佩科特人、纳拉甘西特人和莫西干人之间的竞争，他们争夺东北部毛皮和贝壳贸易的控制权。
This rivalry eventually forced the English and Dutch to choose sides.
这场竞争最终迫使英国人和荷兰人选边站。
The war remained a conflict of Native interests and initiative, especially as the Mohegan hedged their bets on the English and reaped the rewards that came with displacing the Pequot.
这场战争仍然是土著利益和主动性的冲突，特别是当莫西干人对英国人下注并获得取代佩克特人带来的回报时。
Victory over the Pequot not only provided security and stability for the English colonies but also propelled the Mohegan to new heights of political and economic influence as the primary power in New England.
对佩克特人的胜利不仅为英国殖民地提供了安全和稳定，而且将莫西干人推向新的高度，成为新英格兰的主要权力，其政治和经济影响力达到了新的高度。
Ironically, history seemingly repeated itself later in the century as the Mohegan, desperate for a remedy to their diminishing strength, joined the Wampanoag war against the Puritans.
具有讽刺意味的是，历史似乎在本世纪后期重演，莫西根人迫切希望弥补自己日益衰弱的实力，加入了针对清教徒的万帕诺亚格战争。
This produced a more violent conflict in 1675 known as King Philip’s War, bringing a decisive end to Native American power in New England.
这在 1675 年引发了一场更加暴力的冲突，称为菲利普国王战争，彻底终结了美洲原住民在新英格兰的势力。
In the winter of 1675, the body of John Sassamon, a Christian, Harvard-educated Wampanoag, was found under the ice of a nearby pond.
1675 年冬天，约翰·萨萨蒙 (John Sassamon) 的尸体在附近池塘的冰下被发现，他是一位毕业于哈佛大学的万帕诺亚格人。
A fellow Christian Native Americans informed English authorities that three warriors under the local sachem named Metacom, known to the English as King Philip, had killed Sassamon, who had previously accused Metacom of planning an offensive against the English.
一位信奉基督教的美洲原住民同胞告诉英国当局，当地酋长梅塔科姆（英国人称为菲利普国王）手下的三名战士杀死了萨萨蒙，萨萨蒙此前指责梅塔科姆计划对英国人发动进攻。
The three alleged killers appeared before the Plymouth court in June 1675.
1675 年 6 月，三名被指控的凶手在普利茅斯法院出庭。
They were found guilty of murder and executed.
他们被判犯有谋杀罪并被处决。
Several weeks later, a group of Wampanoags killed nine English colonists in the town of Swansea.
几周后，一群万帕诺亚格人在斯旺西镇杀害了九名英国殖民者。
Metacom—like most other New England sachems—had entered into covenants of “submission” to various colonies, viewing the arrangements as relationships of protection and reciprocity rather than subjugation.
梅塔科姆与大多数其他新英格兰酋长一样，与各个殖民地签订了“服从”契约，将这些安排视为保护和互惠关系，而不是征服关系。
Native Americans and the English lived, traded, worshipped, and arbitrated disputes in close proximity before 1675, but the execution of three of Metacom’s men at the hands of Plymouth Colony epitomized what many Native Americans viewed as the growing inequality of that relationship.
1675 年之前，美洲原住民和英国人的生活、贸易、崇拜和争端仲裁都非常接近，但梅塔科姆的三名手下被普利茅斯殖民地处决，这体现了许多美洲原住民认为这种关系日益不平等的情况。
The Wampanoags who attacked Swansea may have sought to restore balance, or to retaliate for the recent executions.
袭击斯旺西的万帕诺亚格人可能是为了恢复平衡，或者是为了对最近的处决进行报复。
Neither they nor anyone else sought to engulf all of New England in war, but that is precisely what happened.
他们或其他任何人都没有试图让整个新英格兰陷入战争，但事实确实如此。
Authorities in Plymouth sprang into action, enlisting help from the neighboring colonies of Connecticut and Massachusetts.
普利茅斯当局迅速采取行动，向邻近的康涅狄格州和马萨诸塞州殖民地寻求帮助。
Metacom and his followers eluded colonial forces in the summer of 1675, striking more Plymouth towns as they moved northwest.
1675 年夏天，梅塔科姆和他的追随者躲避了殖民军队的追击，在向西北移动时袭击了更多的普利茅斯城镇。
Some groups joined his forces, while others remained neutral or supported the English.
一些团体加入了他的军队，而另一些团体则保持中立或支持英国人。
The war badly divided some Indigenous communities.
战争使一些原住民社区严重分裂。
Metacom himself had little control over events as panic and violence spread throughout New England in the autumn of 1675.
1675 年秋，恐慌和暴力在新英格兰蔓延，梅塔科姆本人对事态的控制微乎其微。
English mistrust of neutral Native Americans, sometimes accompanied by demands that they surrender their weapons, pushed many into open war.
英国人对中立的美洲原住民不信任，有时还要求他们交出武器，这导致许多人陷入公开战争。
By the end of 1675, most of the Native Americans of present-day western and central Massachusetts had entered the war, laying waste to nearby English towns like Deerfield, Hadley, and Brookfield.
到 1675 年底，现今马萨诸塞州西部和中部的大多数美洲原住民都参战了，迪尔菲尔德、哈德利和布鲁克菲尔德等附近的英国城镇被夷为平地。
Hapless colonial forces, spurning the military assistance of allies such as the Mohegans, proved unable to locate more mobile Native communities or intercept attacks.
不幸的殖民军队拒绝了莫西干人等盟友的军事援助，事实证明无法找到更多移动的土著社区或拦截袭击。
The English compounded their problems by attacking the powerful and neutral Narragansett of Rhode Island in December 1675.
1675 年 12 月，英国人袭击了罗德岛强大而中立的纳拉甘西特，这让他们的问题更加复杂。
In an action called the Great Swamp Fight, 1,000 Englishmen put the main Narragansett village to the torch, gunning down as many as 1,000 Narragansett men, women, and children as they fled the maelstrom.
在一场名为“大沼泽之战”的行动中，1,000 名英国人将纳拉甘西特的主要村庄付之一炬，在逃离大漩涡时枪杀了多达 1,000 名纳拉甘西特的男人、女人和儿童。
The surviving Narragansett joined those already fighting the English.
幸存的纳拉甘西特加入了已经与英国人作战的队伍。
Between February and April 1676, Native forces devastated a succession of English towns closer and closer to Boston.
1676 年 2 月至 4 月期间，土著军队摧毁了一系列距离波士顿越来越近的英国城镇。
In the spring of 1676, the tide turned.
1676年春天，形势发生了逆转。
The New England colonies took the advice of men like Benjamin Church, who urged the greater use of Native allies, including Pequot and Mohegan, to find and fight the mobile warriors.
新英格兰殖民地采纳了本杰明·丘奇等人的建议，他们敦促更多地利用包括佩科特和莫希根在内的土著盟友来寻找和打击机动战士。
As the combatants were unable to plant crops and forced to live off the land, their will to continue the struggle waned as companies of English and Native allies pursued them.
由于战斗人员无法种植庄稼并被迫靠土地为生，他们继续战斗的意愿随着英国和土著盟友连队的追击而减弱。
Growing numbers of fighters fled the region, switched sides, or surrendered in the spring and summer.
在春季和夏季，越来越多的武装分子逃离该地区、倒戈或投降。
The English sold many of the latter group into slavery.
英国人将许多后者卖为奴隶。
Colonial forces finally caught up with Metacom in August 1676, and the sachem was slain by a Christian Native American fighting with the English.
1676 年 8 月，殖民军队最终追上了梅塔科姆，而这位酋长被一位信奉基督教的美国原住民与英国人作战时杀死。
The war permanently altered the political and demographic landscape of New England.
战争永久地改变了新英格兰的政治和人口格局。
Between eight hundred and one thousand English and at least three thousand Native Americans perished in the fourteen-month conflict.
八十至一千名英国人和至少三千名美洲原住民在十四个月的冲突中丧生。
Thousands of others fled the region or were sold into slavery.
还有数千人逃离该地区或被卖为奴隶。
In 1670, Native Americans comprised roughly 25 percent of New England’s population; a decade later, they made up perhaps 10 percent.
1670 年，美洲原住民约占新英格兰人口的 25%；十年后，他们可能占到了 10%。
21 The war’s brutality also encouraged a growing hatred of all Indigenous people among many New England colonists.
21 战争的残酷也加剧了许多新英格兰殖民者对所有原住民的仇恨。
Though the fighting ceased in 1676, the bitter legacy of King Philip’s War lived on.
尽管战斗于 1676 年停止，但菲利普国王战争的痛苦遗产依然存在。
Sixteen years later, New England faced a new fear: the supernatural.
十六年后，新英格兰面临着新的恐惧：超自然现象。
Beginning in early 1692 and culminating in 1693, Salem Town, Salem Village, Ipswich, and Andover all tried women and men as witches.
从 1692 年初开始，到 1693 年为止，塞勒姆镇、塞勒姆村、伊普斯威奇和安多弗都尝试将女性和男性当作女巫。
Paranoia swept through the region, and fourteen women and six men were executed.
偏执狂席卷了该地区，十四名妇女和六名男子被处决。
Five other individuals died in prison.
另外五人在监狱中死亡。
The causes of the trials are numerous and include local rivalries, political turmoil, enduring trauma of war, faulty legal procedure where accusing others became a method of self-defense, or perhaps even low-level environmental contamination.
审判的原因有很多，包括地方竞争、政治动荡、持久的战争创伤、错误的法律程序（将指控他人变成自卫的方法），甚至可能是低程度的环境污染。
Enduring tensions with Native people framed the events, however, and a Native American or African woman named Tituba enslaved by the local minister was at the center of the tragedy.
然而，与原住民之间持久的紧张关系导致了这些事件的发生，一名被当地牧师奴役的名叫蒂图巴的美洲原住民或非洲妇女是这场悲剧的中心。
22
22
Native American communities in Virginia had already been decimated by wars in 1622 and 1644.
弗吉尼亚州的美洲原住民社区已在 1622 年和 1644 年的战争中遭到严重破坏。
But a new clash arose in Virginia the same year that New Englanders crushed Metacom’s forces.
但就在新英格兰人镇压梅塔科姆军队的同一年，弗吉尼亚州又爆发了一场新的冲突。
This conflict, known as Bacon’s Rebellion, grew out of tensions between Native Americans and English settlers as well as tensions between wealthy English landowners and the poor settlers who continually pushed west into territory controlled by Native Americans.
这场被称为培根叛乱的冲突源于美洲原住民和英国定居者之间的紧张关系，以及富裕的英国地主和不断向西推进到美洲原住民控制的领土的贫穷定居者之间的紧张关系。
Bacon’s Rebellion began, appropriately enough, with an argument over a pig.
培根的叛乱始于一场关于猪的争论，这很恰当。
In the summer of 1675, a group of Doeg people visited Thomas Mathew on his plantation in northern Virginia to collect a debt that he owed them.
1675 年夏天，一群多伊格人拜访了托马斯·马修 (Thomas Mathew) 位于弗吉尼亚州北部的种植园，以讨回他欠他们的债务。
When Mathew refused to pay, they took some of his pigs to settle the debt.
当马修拒绝付款时，他们拿走了他的一些猪来偿还债务。
This “theft” sparked a series of raids and counterraids.
这次“盗窃”引发了一系列袭击和反袭击。
The Susquehannock people were caught in the crossfire when the militia mistook them for Doegs, leaving fourteen dead.
萨斯奎汉诺克人被民兵误认为是多格斯而陷入交火，造成十四人死亡。
A similar pattern of escalating violence then repeated: the Susquehannocks retaliated by killing colonists in Virginia and Maryland, and the English marshaled their forces and laid siege to the Susquehannock.
随后，类似的暴力升级模式再次上演：萨斯奎汉诺克人通过杀害弗吉尼亚州和马里兰州的殖民者进行报复，而英国人则集结军队围攻萨斯奎汉诺克人。
The conflict became uglier after the militia executed a delegation of Susquehannock ambassadors under a flag of truce.
民兵打着休战旗处决了萨斯奎汉诺克大使代表团后，冲突变得更加丑陋。
A few parties of warriors intent on revenge launched raids along the frontier and killed dozens of English colonists.
一些一心复仇的战士沿边境发起袭击，杀死了数十名英国殖民者。
The sudden and unpredictable violence of the Susquehannock War triggered a political crisis in Virginia.
萨斯奎汉诺克战争突发且不可预测的暴力引发了弗吉尼亚州的政治危机。
Panicked colonists fled en masse from the vulnerable frontiers, flooding into coastal communities and begging the government for help.
惊慌失措的殖民者大批逃离脆弱的边境，涌入沿海社区并向政府求助。
But the cautious governor, Sir William Berkeley, did not send an army after the Susquehannock.
但谨慎的总督威廉·伯克利爵士并没有派遣军队追击萨斯奎汉诺克号。
He worried that a full-scale war would inevitably drag other Native Americans into the conflict, turning allies into deadly enemies.
他担心全面战争将不可避免地将其他美洲原住民拖入冲突，将盟友变成致命的敌人。
Berkeley therefore insisted on a defensive strategy centered on a string of new fortifications to protect the frontier and strict instructions not to antagonize friendly Native people.
因此，伯克利坚持采取以一系列新防御工事为中心的防御战略，以保护边境，并严格指示不要与友好的土著人民对抗。
It was a sound military policy but a public relations disaster.
这是一项健全的军事政策，但却是一场公共关系灾难。
Terrified colonists condemned Berkeley.
惊恐万状的殖民者谴责伯克利。
Building contracts for the forts went to Berkeley’s wealthy friends, who conveniently decided that their own plantations were the most strategically vital.
建造堡垒的合同交给了伯克利的富有的朋友，他们很方便地认为自己的种植园最具战略意义。
Colonists denounced the government as a corrupt band of oligarchs more interested in lining their pockets than protecting the people.
殖民者谴责政府是一群腐败的寡头，他们更关心中饱私囊而不是保护人民。
By the spring of 1676, a small group of frontier colonists took matters into their own hands.
1676 年春天，一小群边境殖民者将事情掌握在自己手中。
Naming the charismatic young Nathaniel Bacon as their leader, these self-styled “volunteers” proclaimed that they took up arms in defense of their homes and families.
这些自称为“志愿者”的人任命富有魅力的年轻纳撒尼尔·培根为领袖，并宣称他们拿起武器保卫自己的家园和家人。
They took pains to assure Berkeley that they intended no disloyalty, but Berkeley feared a coup and branded the volunteers as traitors.
他们煞费苦心地向伯克利保证，他们无意不忠，但伯克利担心发生政变，并将志愿者称为叛徒。
Berkeley finally mobilized an army—not to pursue Susquehannock, but to crush the colonists’ rebellion.
伯克利最终动员了一支军队——不是为了追击萨斯奎汉诺克，而是为了镇压殖民者的叛乱。
His drastic response catapulted a small band of vigilantes into full-fledged rebels whose survival necessitated bringing down the colonial government.
他的激烈反应使一小群治安维持者变成了成熟的叛乱分子，他们的生存需要推翻殖民政府。
Bacon and the rebels stalked the Susquehannock as well as friendly Native Americans like the Pamunkeys and the Occaneechi.
培根和叛军跟踪了萨斯奎汉诺克人以及友好的美洲原住民，如帕蒙基人和奥卡内奇人。
The rebels became convinced that there was a massive Native American conspiracy to destroy the English.
叛乱分子确信美洲原住民有一个旨在消灭英国人的大规模阴谋。
Berkeley’s stubborn persistence in defending friendly Natives and destroying the rebels led Bacon to accuse the governor of conspiring with a “powerful cabal” of elite planters and with “the protected and darling Indians” to slaughter his English enemies.
伯克利顽固地坚持捍卫友好的原住民并消灭叛乱分子，这导致培根指责总督与精英种植园主的“强大阴谋集团”以及“受保护的亲爱的印第安人”密谋屠杀他的英国敌人。
23
23
In the early summer of 1676, Bacon’s neighbors elected him their burgess and sent him to Jamestown to confront Berkeley.
1676 年初夏，培根的邻居选举他为自由民，并派他前往詹姆斯敦对抗伯克利。
Though the House of Burgesses enacted pro-rebel reforms like prohibiting the sale of arms to Native Americans and restoring suffrage rights to landless freemen, Bacon’s supporters remained unsatisfied.
尽管下议院颁布了支持叛乱的改革措施，例如禁止向美洲原住民出售武器和恢复无土地自由民的选举权，但培根的支持者仍然不满意。
Berkeley soon had Bacon arrested and forced the rebel leader into the humiliating position of publicly begging forgiveness for his treason.
伯克利很快逮捕了培根，并迫使这位叛军领袖陷入公开乞求原谅他叛国罪的耻辱境地。
Bacon swallowed this indignity but turned the tables by gathering an army of followers and surrounding the State House, demanding that Berkeley name him the general of Virginia and bless his universal war against Native Americans.
培根接受了这种侮辱，但通过召集追随者大军包围州议会大厦，要求伯克利任命他为弗吉尼亚将军，并祝福他对美洲原住民的普遍战争，从而扭转了局势。
Instead, the seventy-year-old governor stepped onto the field in front of the crowd of angry men, unafraid, and called Bacon a traitor to his face.
相反，这位七十岁的州长毫不畏惧地站在愤怒的人群面前，当面称培根为叛徒。
Then he tore open his shirt and dared Bacon to shoot him in the heart, if he was so intent on overthrowing his government.
然后他撕开衬衫，向培根挑战，如果他真想推翻政府，就朝他的心脏开枪。
“Here!” he shouted before the crowd, “shoot me, before God, it is a fair mark.
“这里！”他对着人群喊道：“开枪射击我吧，在上帝面前，这是一个公平的目标。
Shoot!” When Bacon hesitated, Berkeley drew his sword and challenged the young man to a duel, knowing that Bacon could neither back down from a challenge without looking like a coward nor kill him without making himself into a villain.
射击！”当培根犹豫时，伯克利拔出剑向这个年轻人发起决斗挑战，因为他知道培根既不能在挑战中退缩而不显得像个胆小鬼，也不能杀死他而不让自己变成一个恶棍。
Instead, Bacon resorted to bluster and blasphemy.
相反，培根诉诸于咆哮和亵渎。
Threatening to slaughter the entire assembly if necessary, he cursed, “God damn my blood, I came for a commission, and a commission I will have before I go.” 24 Berkeley stood defiant, but the cowed burgesses finally prevailed upon him to grant Bacon’s request.
他威胁说，如果有必要的话，他会屠杀整个集会，他咒骂道：“该死的，我是为了一个使命而来的，在我走之前我会得到一个使命。” 24 伯克利坚决反对，但胆怯的市民最终说服他答应了培根的请求。
Virginia had its general, and Bacon had his war.
弗吉尼亚有它的将军，培根有他的战争。
After this dramatic showdown in Jamestown, Bacon’s Rebellion quickly spiraled out of control.
在詹姆斯敦这场戏剧性的对决之后，培根的叛乱很快就失控了。
Berkeley slowly rebuilt his loyalist army, forcing Bacon to divert his attention to the coasts and away from Native Americans.
伯克利慢慢地重建了他的忠诚军队，迫使培根将他的注意力从美洲原住民身上转移到海岸上。
But most rebels were more interested in defending their homes and families than in fighting other Englishmen, and they deserted in droves at every rumor of Native activity.
但大多数叛乱分子更感兴趣的是保卫自己的家园和家人，而不是与其他英国人作战，一旦有关于土著活动的谣言，他们就会成群结队地逃跑。
In many places, the “rebellion” was less an organized military campaign than a collection of local grievances and personal rivalries.
在许多地方，“叛乱”与其说是一场有组织的军事行动，不如说是当地不满和个人对抗的集合。
Both rebels and loyalists smelled the opportunities for plunder, seizing their rivals’ estates and confiscating their property.
叛军和效忠者都嗅到了掠夺的机会，夺取了对手的地产并没收了他们的财产。
For a small but vocal minority of rebels, however, the rebellion became an ideological revolution: Sarah Drummond, wife of rebel leader William Drummond, advocated independence from England and the formation of a Virginian Republic, declaring “I fear the power of England no more than a broken straw.” Others struggled for a different kind of independence: white servants and enslaved Black people fought side by side in both armies after promises of freedom for military service.
然而，对于一小部分直言不讳的叛乱分子来说，叛乱变成了一场意识形态革命：叛乱领袖威廉·德拉蒙德的妻子莎拉·德拉蒙德主张从英国独立并建立弗吉尼亚共和国，宣称“我担心英国的力量只不过是一根折断的稻草”。其他人则为另一种独立而奋斗：在承诺服兵役自由后，白人仆人和被奴役的黑人在两支军队中并肩作战。
Everyone accused everyone else of treason, rebels and loyalists switched sides depending on which side was winning, and the whole Chesapeake disintegrated into a confused melee of secret plots and grandiose crusades, sordid vendettas and desperate gambits, with Native Americans and English alike struggling for supremacy and survival.
每个人都指责其他人叛国，叛军和效忠者根据获胜的一方而改变立场，整个切萨皮克分裂成一场由秘密阴谋和宏伟的十字军东征、肮脏的仇杀和绝望的策略组成的混乱混战，美洲原住民和英国人都在为霸权和生存而奋斗。
One Virginian summed up the rebellion as “our time of anarchy.” 25
一位弗吉尼亚人将这场叛乱总结为“我们的无政府时代”。 25
The rebels steadily lost ground and ultimately suffered a crushing defeat.
叛军节节败退，最终惨败。
Bacon died of typhus in the autumn of 1676, and his successors surrendered to Berkeley in January 1677.
培根于 1676 年秋天死于斑疹伤寒，他的继任者于 1677 年 1 月向伯克利投降。
Berkeley summarily tried and executed the rebel leadership in a succession of kangaroo courts-martial.
伯克利在一系列袋鼠军事法庭中草率地审判并处决了叛军领导层。
Before long, however, the royal fleet arrived, bearing over one thousand red-coated troops and a royal commission of investigation charged with restoring order to the colony.
然而不久之后，皇家舰队抵达，载着一千多名红衣士兵和一个负责恢复殖民地秩序的皇家调查委员会。
The commissioners replaced the governor and dispatched Berkeley to London, where he died in disgrace.
委员们更换了州长，并派伯克利前往伦敦，伯克利在那里耻辱地去世。
But the conclusion of Bacon’s Rebellion was uncertain, and the maintenance of order remained precarious for years afterward.
但培根叛乱的结局尚不确定，此后数年秩序的维持仍岌岌可危。
The garrison of royal troops discouraged both incursion by Native Americans and insurrection by discontented colonists, allowing the king to continue profiting from tobacco revenues.
皇家军队的驻军阻止了美洲原住民的入侵和心怀不满的殖民者的叛乱，使国王能够继续从烟草收入中获利。
The end of armed resistance did not mean a resolution to the underlying tensions destabilizing colonial society.
武装抵抗的结束并不意味着破坏殖民社会稳定的根本紧张局势得到解决。
Native Americans inside Virginia remained an embattled minority, and those outside Virginia remained a terrifying threat.
弗吉尼亚州境内的美洲原住民仍然是陷入困境的少数群体，而弗吉尼亚州以外的美洲原住民仍然是一个可怕的威胁。
Elite planters continued to grow rich by exploiting their indentured servants and marginalizing small farmers.
精英种植园主通过剥削契约仆人和边缘化小农继续致富。
Most Virginians continued to resent their exploitation with a simmering fury.
大多数弗吉尼亚人继续对他们的剥削感到愤怒。
Virginia legislators did recognize the extent of popular hostility toward colonial rule, however, and improved the social and political conditions of poor white Virginians in the years after the rebellion.
然而，弗吉尼亚立法者确实认识到民众对殖民统治的敌意程度，并在叛乱后的几年里改善了贫穷的弗吉尼亚白人的社会和政治状况。
During the same period, the increasing availability of enslaved workers through the Atlantic slave trade contributed to planters’ large-scale adoption of slave labor in the Chesapeake.
同一时期，通过大西洋奴隶贸易，奴隶工人的数量不断增加，导致切萨皮克种植园主大规模采用奴隶劳动。
Just a few years after Bacon’s Rebellion, the Spanish experienced their own tumult in the area of contemporary New Mexico.
培根叛乱几年后，西班牙人在当代新墨西哥地区经历了自己的骚乱。
The Spanish had been maintaining control partly by suppressing Native American beliefs.
西班牙人部分通过压制美洲原住民的信仰来维持控制。
Friars aggressively enforced Catholic practice, burning native idols and masks and other sacred objects and banishing traditional spiritual practices.
修士们积极推行天主教习俗，焚烧当地的偶像、面具和其他神圣物品，并废除传统的精神习俗。
In 1680, the Puebloan religious leader Popé, who had been arrested and whipped for “sorcery” five years earlier, led various Puebloan groups in rebellion.
1680 年，五年前因“巫术”被捕并受到鞭打的普韦布洛宗教领袖波佩领导了多个普韦布洛团体进行叛乱。
Several thousand Puebloan warriors razed the Spanish countryside and besieged Santa Fe.
数千名普韦布洛战士夷平了西班牙乡村并围困了圣达菲。
They killed four hundred, including twenty-one Franciscan priests, and allowed two thousand other Spaniards and Christian Puebloans to flee.
他们杀害了四百人，其中包括二十一名方济各会牧师，并允许另外两千名西班牙人和基督教普韦布洛人逃离。
It was perhaps the greatest act of Indigenous resistance in North American history.
这也许是北美历史上最伟大的原住民抵抗行动。
Built sometime between 1000 and 1450 AD, the Taos Pueblo located near modern-day Taos, New Mexico, functioned as a base for the leader Popé during the Pueblo Revolt.
陶斯普韦布洛建于公元 1000 年至 1450 年之间，位于现代新墨西哥州陶斯附近，在普韦布洛起义期间作为领导人教皇的基地。
Luca Galuzzi (photographer), Taos Pueblo, 2007.
Luca Galuzzi（摄影师），陶斯普韦布洛，2007 年。
Wikimedia .
维基媒体。
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 Generic.
知识共享归属 - 相同方式共享 2.5 通用。
In New Mexico, the Puebloans eradicated all traces of Spanish rule.
在新墨西哥州，普韦布洛人铲除了西班牙统治的所有痕迹。
They destroyed churches and threw themselves into rivers to wash away their Christian baptisms.
他们摧毁了教堂并投河自尽，以洗掉他们的基督教洗礼。
“The God of the Christians is dead,” Popé proclaimed, and the Puebloans resumed traditional spiritual practices.
教皇宣称：“基督徒的上帝已经死了”，普韦布洛人恢复了传统的精神实践。
26 The Spanish were exiled for twelve years.
26 西班牙人被流放十二年。
They returned in 1692, weakened, to reconquer New Mexico.
1692 年，他们在实力减弱的情况下卷土重来，重新征服了新墨西哥州。
The late seventeenth century was a time of great violence and turmoil.
十七世纪末是一个充满暴力和动乱的时代。
Bacon’s Rebellion turned white Virginians against one another, King Philip’s War shattered Native American resistance in New England, and the Pueblo Revolt struck a major blow to Spanish power.
培根的叛乱使弗吉尼亚白人彼此对立，菲利普国王的战争粉碎了新英格兰美洲原住民的抵抗，普韦布洛起义对西班牙势力造成了重大打击。
It would take several more decades before similar patterns erupted in Carolina and Pennsylvania, but the constant advance of European settlements provoked conflict in these areas as well.
类似的模式又过了几十年才在卡罗来纳州和宾夕法尼亚州爆发，但欧洲定居点的不断推进也引发了这些地区的冲突。
In 1715, the Yamasee, Carolina’s closest allies and most lucrative trading partners, turned against the colony and nearly destroyed it entirely.
1715 年，卡罗莱纳州最亲密的盟友和最赚钱的贸易伙伴雅马西人背叛了这个殖民地，几乎将其彻底摧毁。
Writing from Carolina to London, the settler George Rodd believed the Yamasee wanted nothing less than “the whole continent and to kill us or chase us all out.” 27 The Yamasee would eventually advance within miles of Charles Town.
定居者乔治·罗德从卡罗莱纳州写信到伦敦，他相信雅马西人想要的无非是“整个大陆，并杀死我们或将我们全部赶走”。 27 雅马西号最终将推进到距查尔斯镇数英里的范围内。
The Yamasee War’s first victims were traders.
雅马西战争的第一批受害者是商人。
The governor had dispatched two of the colony’s most prominent men to visit and pacify a Yamasee council following rumors of native unrest.
在当地发生骚乱的传言传出后，总督派了两名殖民地最著名的人物去拜访并安抚亚马西议会。
The Yamasee quickly proved the fears well founded by killing the emissaries and every English trader they could corral.
雅马西人很快就杀死了使者和他们能抓到的每一个英国商人，证明了这种恐惧是有根据的。
The Yamasee, like many other Native Americans, had come to depend on English courts as much as the flintlock rifles and ammunition that traders offered them for enslaved laborers and animal skins.
与许多其他美洲原住民一样，雅马西人也开始依赖英国法庭，就像贸易商为他们提供的燧发枪和弹药以及动物皮毛一样。
Feuds between English agents had crippled the court of trade and shut down all diplomacy, provoking the violent Yamasee reprisal.
英国特工之间的争斗削弱了贸易法庭并关闭了所有外交，引发了亚马西的暴力报复。
Most villages in the southeast sent at least a few warriors to join what quickly became a cause against the colony that united various Native American peoples.
东南部的大多数村庄至少派出了几名战士加入，很快就成为反对联合美洲原住民的殖民地的事业。
Yet Charles Town ultimately survived the onslaught by preserving one crucial alliance with the Cherokee.
然而，查尔斯镇最终通过与切罗基人保持了重要的联盟而在这场猛攻中幸存下来。
By 1717, the conflict had largely dried up, and the only remaining menace was roaming Yamasee bands operating from Spanish Florida.
到 1717 年，冲突已基本平息，唯一剩下的威胁是在西属佛罗里达活动的雅马西族群。
Most Native American villages returned to terms with Carolina and resumed trading.
大多数美洲原住民村庄与卡罗来纳州恢复了协议并恢复了贸易。
The lucrative trade in enslaved Native Americans, however, which had consumed fifty thousand souls in five decades, largely dwindled after the war.
然而，对被奴役的美洲原住民的利润丰厚的贸易在五年内消耗了五万人，在战后很大程度上减少了。
The danger was too high for traders, and the colonies discovered even greater profits by importing Africans to work new rice plantations.
对于商人来说，危险太大了，殖民地通过引进非洲人到新的水稻种植园工作，发现了更大的利润。
Herein lies the birth of the Old South, that expanse of plantations that created untold wealth and misery.
这里是旧南方的诞生之地，那片广阔的种植园创造了无数的财富和苦难。
Native Americans retained the strongest militaries in the region, but they never again threatened the survival of English colonies.
美洲原住民保留了该地区最强大的军队，但他们再也没有威胁到英国殖民地的生存。
If a colony existed where peace with Indigenous people might continue, it would be Pennsylvania.
如果存在一个可以与原住民和平相处的殖民地，那一定是宾夕法尼亚州。
At the colony’s founding, William Penn created a Quaker religious imperative for the peaceful treatment of Native Americans.
在殖民地建立时，威廉·佩恩（William Penn）为和平对待美洲原住民制定了贵格会宗教规则。
While Penn never doubted that the English would appropriate Native lands, he demanded that his colonists obtain these territories through purchase rather than violence.
虽然佩恩从不怀疑英国人会侵占土著土地，但他要求他的殖民者通过购买而不是暴力获得这些领土。
Though Pennsylvanians maintained relatively peaceful relations with Native Americans, increased immigration and booming land speculation increased the demand for land.
尽管宾夕法尼亚人与美洲原住民保持着相对和平的关系，但移民的增加和土地投机的蓬勃发展增加了对土地的需求。
Coercive and fraudulent methods of negotiation became increasingly prominent.
胁迫性和欺诈性谈判手段日益突出。
The Walking Purchase of 1737 was emblematic of both colonists’ desire for cheap land and the changing relationship between Pennsylvanians and their Native neighbors.
1737 年的步行购买象征着殖民者对廉价土地的渴望，以及宾夕法尼亚人和他们的原住民邻居之间关系的变化。
Through treaty negotiation in 1737, Native Delaware leaders agreed to sell Pennsylvania all of the land that a man could walk in a day and a half, a common measurement used by Delawares in evaluating distances.
通过 1737 年的条约谈判，特拉华州原住民领导人同意将一个人可以在一天半内行走的所有土地出售给宾夕法尼亚州，这是特拉华州评估距离时常用的衡量标准。
John and Thomas Penn, joined by the land speculator and longtime friend of the Penns James Logan, hired a team of skilled runners to complete the “walk” on a prepared trail.
约翰·佩恩 (John Penn) 和托马斯·佩恩 (Thomas Penn) 在土地投机商、佩恩家族的老朋友詹姆斯·洛根 (James Logan) 的陪同下，聘请了一支熟练的跑步者团队，在准备好的小道上完成“步行”。
The runners traveled from Wrightstown to the present-day town of Jim Thorpe, and proprietary officials then drew the new boundary line perpendicular to the runners’ route, extending northeast to the Delaware River.
跑步者从赖茨敦前往今天的吉姆索普镇，然后专有官员绘制了垂直于跑步者路线的新边界线，向东北延伸至特拉华河。
The colonial government thus measured out a tract much larger than the Delaware had originally intended to sell, roughly 1,200 square miles.
因此，殖民政府划出了一块比特拉华最初打算出售的土地大得多的土地，大约为 1,200 平方英里。
As a result, Delaware-proprietary relations suffered.
结果，特拉华州与私有制的关系受到损害。
Many Delaware left the lands in question and migrated westward to join Shawnee and other Delaware already living in the Ohio Valley.
许多特拉华人离开了这些土地，向西迁移，加入了肖尼人和其他已经居住在俄亥俄河谷的特拉华人。
There they established diplomatic and trade relationships with the French.
他们在那里与法国建立了外交和贸易关系。
Memories of the suspect purchase endured into the 1750s and became a chief point of contention between the Pennsylvanian government and the Delaware during the upcoming Seven Years’ War.
对可疑购买的记忆一直持续到 1750 年代，并在即将到来的七年战争期间成为宾夕法尼亚州政府和特拉华州之间的主要争论点。
28
28
The seventeenth century saw the creation and maturation of Britain’s North American colonies.
十七世纪见证了英国北美殖民地的创建和成熟。
Colonists warred against unforgiving climates, imperial intrigue, and Native Americans.
殖民者与严酷的气候、帝国的阴谋和美洲原住民进行了战争。
They did so largely through ruthless expressions of power.
他们在很大程度上是通过无情地表达权力来做到这一点的。
Colonists attacked Native Americans, provoked European rivals, and joined a highly lucrative transatlantic economy rooted in slavery.
殖民者攻击美洲原住民，激怒欧洲竞争对手，并加入了植根于奴隶制、利润丰厚的跨大西洋经济。
After surviving a century of desperation and war, British North American colonists fashioned increasingly complex societies with unique religious cultures, economic ties, and political traditions.
在经历了一个世纪的绝望和战争之后，英属北美殖民者塑造了日益复杂的社会，具有独特的宗教文化、经济联系和政治传统。
These societies would come to shape not only North America but soon the entirety of the Atlantic World.
这些社会不仅塑造了北美，而且很快塑造了整个大西洋世界。
In this harrowing description of the Middle Passage, Olaudah Equiano described the terror of the transatlantic slave trade.
在对中部航道的悲惨描述中，奥劳达·艾奎亚诺描述了跨大西洋奴隶贸易的恐怖。
Equiano eventually purchased his freedom and lived in London where he advocated for abolition.
艾奎亚诺最终购买了自由并居住在伦敦，在那里他主张废除死刑。
Robert Horne’s wanted to entice English settlers to join the new colony of Carolina.
罗伯特·霍恩希望吸引英国殖民者加入卡罗莱纳州的新殖民地。
According to Horne, natural bounty, economic opportunity, and religious liberty awaited anyone willing to make the journey.
霍恩表示，自然恩赐、经济机会和宗教自由等待着任何愿意踏上这段旅程的人。
Horne wanted to recruit settlers of every social class, from those “of Genteel blood” to those who would have to sign a contract of indentured servitude.
霍恩想招募各个社会阶层的定居者，从那些“有上流血统”的人到那些必须签署契约奴役合同的人。
Thomas Newe’s account of his experience in Carolina offers an interesting counter to Robert Horne’s prediction of what would await settlers.
托马斯·纽（Thomas Newe）对他在卡罗莱纳州的经历的描述与罗伯特·霍恩（Robert Horne）对定居者将面临什么的预测提供了有趣的反驳。
Newe describes deadly disease, war with Native Americans, and unprepared colonists.
纽描述了致命的疾病、与美洲原住民的战争以及毫无准备的殖民者。
Newe longs for news from home but also appears committed to making a new life for himself in Carolina.
纽维渴望收到家乡的消息，但似乎也致力于在卡罗来纳州为自己创造新的生活。
4.
4.
Francis Daniel Pastorius describes his ocean voyage, 1684
弗朗西斯·丹尼尔·帕斯托里斯 (Francis Daniel Pastorius) 描述他的远洋航行，1684 年
The journey across the Atlantic was difficult at best and deadly at worst.
横渡大西洋的旅程往好了说是困难的，往坏了说是致命的。
Francis Pastorius left his home in Germany to create a new life in Pennsylvania.
弗朗西斯·帕斯托里斯离开德国的家乡，前往宾夕法尼亚州开始新的生活。
This account shows the discomforts and dangers of oceanic travel in the seventeenth century.
这篇报道展示了 17 世纪海洋旅行的不适和危险。
Some English men and women understood the New World to be a place of opportunity, where they could create new lives.
一些英国男人和女人认为新世界是一个充满机遇的地方，他们可以在那里创造新的生活。
More common, however, was the belief that the New World was a place of great danger and suffering.
然而，更常见的是相信新世界是一个充满巨大危险和苦难的地方。
This song was written from the perspective of a young girl who was sent to Virginia against her will, where she faced a life of hunger and never-ending work.
这首歌是从一个年轻女孩的角度写的，她被迫被送到弗吉尼亚州，在那里她面临着饥饿和永无休止的工作的生活。
This Thanksgiving address was used by the six nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) to open and close major gatherings or meetings.
豪德诺索尼族（易洛魁族）的六个民族用这个感恩节演讲来宣布大型集会或会议的开幕和闭幕。
The prayer was also sometimes used individually at the beginning or end of the day.
有时也会在一天的开始或结束时单独进行祈祷。
Rose Davis was born to an indentured servant white woman and a Black man.
罗丝·戴维斯的父亲是一名白人契约女仆，母亲是一名黑人。
Slave law claimed that children inherited the status of their mother, a law that enabled enslavers to control the reproductive functions of their enslaved women laborers.
奴隶法声称儿童继承了母亲的地位，这项法律使奴隶主能够控制被奴役的女工的生殖功能。
However, as race increasingly became a marker of slavery, even the children of free white women could be vulnerable to enslavement.
然而，随着种族日益成为奴隶制的标志，即使是自由白人妇女的孩子也可能容易受到奴役。
Rose had been working as an indentured servant when she petitioned the court for her freedom.
当罗斯向法院请求自由时，她一直是一名契约仆人。
Instead, she was sentenced to a lifetime of slavery.
相反，她被判处终身奴役。
Slave ships transported 11-12 million Africans to destinations in North and South America, but it was not until the end of the eighteenth century that any kind of regulation was introduced.
奴隶船将 11-1200 万非洲人运送到北美和南美的目的地，但直到 18 世纪末才引入任何形式的监管。
The Brookes print dates to after the Regulated Slave Trade Act of 1788, but still shows enslaved Africans chained in rows using bilboes, which were iron leg shackles used to chain pairs of enslaved people together during the Middle Passage throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
布鲁克斯的版画可以追溯到 1788 年《奴隶贸易管制法》之后，但仍然展示了被奴役的非洲人被用 bilboes 锁成一排，这是一种铁脚镣，在整个 17 世纪和 18 世纪的中间航道期间用于将成对的奴隶锁在一起。
The slave ship Brookes was allowed to carry up to 454 enslaved Africans, allotting 6 feet (1.8 m) by 1 foot 4 inches (0.41 m) to each man; 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) by 1 foot 4 inches (0.41 m) to each woman, and 5 feet (1.5 m) by 1 foot 2 inches (0.36 m) to each child, but one slave trader alleged that before 1788, the ship carried as many as 609 enslaved people.
布鲁克斯号奴隶船被允许运载最多 454 名被奴役的非洲人，每人分配 6 英尺（1.8 m）乘 1 英尺 4 英寸（0.41 m）的空间；每个妇女的距离为 5 英尺 10 英寸（1.78 m）× 1 英尺 4 英寸（0.41 m），每个孩子的距离为 5 英尺（1.5 m）× 1 英尺 2 英寸（0.36 m），但一名奴隶贩子声称，在 1788 年之前，这艘船载有多达 609 名奴隶。
British colonists in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries occupied a constantly contested frontier.
十七世纪和十八世纪初的英国殖民者占领了一块不断争夺的边境。
The British Empire competed with French, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and even Scottish explorers to claim land in North America and the Caribbean – much of it already settled by Native Americans.
大英帝国与法国、西班牙、葡萄牙、荷兰甚至苏格兰探险家争夺北美和加勒比地区的土地——其中大部分已经由美洲原住民定居。
This diverse territory would continue to be contested throughout the eighteenth century.
在整个十八世纪，这片多样化的领土将继续受到争夺。
Eventually, the British Empire included twenty-six colonies in North America, producing everything from grain and timber to luxury goods like tobacco and sugar.
最终，大英帝国在北美拥有了二十六个殖民地，生产从谷物和木材到烟草和糖等奢侈品的各种产品。
This chapter was edited by Daniel Johnson, with content contributions by Gregory Ablavsky, James Ambuske, Carolyn Arena, L.
本章由 Daniel Johnson 编辑，内容由 Gregory Ablavsky、James Ambuske、Carolyn Arena、L.
D.
D .
Burnett, Lori Daggar, Daniel Johnson, Hendrick Isom, D.
伯内特、洛里·达格、丹尼尔·约翰逊、亨德里克·伊索姆、D.
Andrew Johnson, Matthew Kruer, Joseph Locke, Samantha Miller, Melissa Morris, Bryan Rindfleisch, Emily Romeo, John Saillant, Ian Saxine, Marie Stango, Luke Willert, and Ben Wright.
安德鲁·约翰逊、马修·克鲁尔、约瑟夫·洛克、萨曼莎·米勒、梅丽莎·莫里斯、布莱恩·林德弗莱什、艾米丽·罗密欧、约翰·赛兰特、伊恩·萨克辛、玛丽·斯坦戈、卢克·威勒特和本·赖特。
Recommended citation: Gregory Ablavsky et al., “British North America,” Daniel Johnson, ed., in The American Yawp , eds.
推荐引用：Gregory Ablavsky 等人，“英国北美”，Daniel Johnson 编辑，载于 The American Yawp 编辑。
Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
约瑟夫·洛克和本·赖特（加利福尼亚州斯坦福：斯坦福大学出版社，2018 年）。