The American Yawp
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Europeans called the Americas “the New World.” But for the millions of Native Americans they encountered, it was anything but.
欧洲人称美洲为“新世界”。但对于他们遇到的数百万美洲原住民来说，这绝对不是。
Humans have lived in the Americas for over ten thousand years.
人类在美洲已经生活了一万多年。
Dynamic and diverse, they spoke hundreds of languages and created thousands of distinct cultures.
他们充满活力且多元化，讲着数百种语言，创造了数千种不同的文化。
Native Americans built settled communities and followed seasonal migration patterns, maintained peace through alliances and warred with their neighbors, and developed self-sufficient economies and maintained vast trade networks.
美洲原住民建立了定居社区，遵循季节性迁徙模式，通过联盟维持和平并与邻居交战，发展自给自足的经济并维持庞大的贸易网络。
They cultivated distinct art forms and spiritual values.
他们培养了独特的艺术形式和精神价值观。
Kinship ties knit their communities together.
亲属关系将他们的社区联系在一起。
But the arrival of Europeans and the resulting global exchange of people, animals, plants, and microbes—what scholars benignly call the Columbian Exchange—bridged more than ten thousand years of geographic separation, inaugurated centuries of violence, unleashed the greatest biological terror the world had ever seen, and revolutionized the history of the world.
但欧洲人的到来以及由此产生的人类、动物、植物和微生物的全球交换——学者们亲切地称之为哥伦布交换——弥合了一万多年的地理隔离，开启了几个世纪的暴力，释放了世界上有史以来最严重的生物恐怖，并彻底改变了世界历史。
It began one of the most consequential developments in all of human history and the first chapter in the long American yawp.
它开启了人类历史上最重要的发展之一，也是美国漫长的咆哮的第一章。
American history begins with the first Americans.
美国历史始于第一批美国人。
But where do their stories start?
但他们的故事从哪里开始呢？
Native Americans passed stories down through the millennia that tell of their creation and reveal the contours of Indigenous belief.
美洲原住民几千年来一直在传承故事，讲述他们的创造并揭示原住民信仰的轮廓。
The Salinan people of present-day California, for example, tell of a bald eagle that formed the first man out of clay and the first woman out of a feather.
例如，现在加利福尼亚州的萨利南人讲述了一只秃鹰用粘土创造了第一个男人，用羽毛创造了第一个女人。
1 According to a Lenape tradition, the earth was made when Sky Woman fell into a watery world and, with the help of muskrat and beaver, landed safely on a turtle’s back, thus creating Turtle Island, or North America.
1 根据莱纳佩的传统，地球是在天女落入水世界并在麝香鼠和海狸的帮助下安全降落在海龟背上时形成的，从而创造了海龟岛或北美。
A Choctaw tradition locates southeastern peoples’ beginnings inside the great Mother Mound earthwork, Nunih Waya, in the lower Mississippi Valley.
乔克托人的传统将东南部人民的起源定位在密西西比河谷下游的努尼瓦亚 (Nunih Waya) 伟大的母亲土丘土方之中。
2 Nahua people trace their beginnings to the place of the Seven Caves, from which their ancestors emerged before they migrated to what is now central Mexico.
2 纳瓦人的起源可以追溯到七洞，他们的祖先在迁徙到现在的墨西哥中部之前就是从那里出现的。
3 America’s Indigenous peoples have passed down many accounts of their origins, written and oral, which share creation and migration histories.
3 美国原住民传承了许多关于其起源的书面和口头叙述，这些叙述都有共同的创造和移民历史。
Archaeologists and anthropologists, meanwhile, focus on migration histories.
与此同时，考古学家和人类学家则关注迁徙历史。
Studying artifacts, bones, and genetic signatures, these scholars have pieced together a narrative that claims that the Americas were once a “new world” for Native Americans as well.
这些学者通过研究文物、骨头和基因特征，拼凑出一个叙述，声称美洲曾经对美洲原住民来说也是一个“新世界”。
The last global ice age trapped much of the world’s water in enormous continental glaciers.
上一个全球冰河时代将世界上的大部分水困在巨大的大陆冰川中。
Twenty thousand years ago, ice sheets, some a mile thick, extended across North America as far south as modern-day Illinois.
两万年前，约一英里厚的冰盖横跨北美，一直延伸到现代伊利诺伊州南部。
With so much of the world’s water captured in these massive ice sheets, global sea levels were much lower, and a land bridge connected Asia and North America across the Bering Strait.
由于这些巨大的冰原捕获了世界上大量的水，全球海平面要低得多，并且有一座陆桥跨越白令海峡连接亚洲和北美。
Between twelve and twenty thousand years ago, Native ancestors crossed the ice, waters, and exposed lands between the continents of Asia and America.
十二万到两万年前，土著祖先穿越了亚洲和美洲大陆之间的冰层、水域和裸露的土地。
These mobile hunter-gatherers traveled in small bands, exploiting vegetable, animal, and marine resources into the Beringian tundra at the northwestern edge of North America.
这些流动的狩猎采集者以小队形式迁徙，进入北美西北边缘的白令海峡苔原，开发植物、动物和海洋资源。
DNA evidence suggests that these ancestors paused—for perhaps fifteen thousand years—in the expansive region between Asia and America.
DNA 证据表明，这些祖先在亚洲和美洲之间的广阔地区停留了大约一万五千年。
4 Other ancestors crossed the seas and voyaged along the Pacific coast, traveling along riverways and settling where local ecosystems permitted.
4 其他祖先漂洋过海，沿着太平洋海岸航行，沿着河道旅行，并在当地生态系统允许的地方定居。
5 Glacial sheets receded around fourteen thousand years ago, opening a corridor to warmer climates and new resources.
5 大约一万四千年前，冰川消退，开辟了通往温暖气候和新资源的走廊。
Some ancestral communities migrated southward and eastward.
一些祖先社区向南和向东迁移。
Evidence found at Monte Verde, a site in modern-day Chile, suggests that human activity began there at least 14,500 years ago.
在位于现代智利的蒙特维德遗址发现的证据表明，人类活动至少在 14,500 年前就开始于此。
Similar evidence hints at human settlement in the Florida panhandle and in Central Texas at the same time.
类似的证据暗示佛罗里达州狭长地带和德克萨斯州中部同时存在人类定居。
6 On many points, archaeological and traditional knowledge sources converge: the dental, archaeological, linguistic, oral, ecological, and genetic evidence illustrates a great deal of diversity, with numerous groups settling and migrating over thousands of years, potentially from many different points of origin.
6 在许多方面，考古学和传统知识来源是一致的：牙科、考古、语言、口头、生态和遗传证据表明了巨大的多样性，数千年来无数群体可能来自许多不同的起源地定居和迁徙。
7 Whether emerging from the earth, water, or sky; being made by a creator; or migrating to their homelands, modern Native American communities recount histories in America that date long before human memory.
7 无论是从大地、水中还是天空中浮现；由创作者制作；或者移民到他们的家乡，现代美洲原住民社区讲述了早在人类记忆之前很久的美国历史。
In the Northwest, Native groups exploited the great salmon-filled rivers.
在西北地区，土著群体开发了盛产鲑鱼的大河。
On the plains and prairie lands, hunting communities followed bison herds and moved according to seasonal patterns.
在平原和草原上，狩猎社区跟随野牛群并根据季节模式移动。
In mountains, prairies, deserts, and forests, the cultures and ways of life of paleo-era ancestors were as varied as the geography.
在山区、草原、沙漠和森林中，古时代祖先的文化和生活方式就像地理一样多种多样。
These groups spoke hundreds of languages and adopted distinct cultural practices.
这些群体使用数百种语言并采用不同的文化习俗。
Rich and diverse diets fueled massive population growth across the continent.
丰富多样的饮食推动了整个非洲大陆人口的大规模增长。
Agriculture arose sometime between nine thousand and five thousand years ago, almost simultaneously in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.
农业兴起于九千到五千年前的某个时候，几乎同时在东半球和西半球兴起。
Mesoamericans in modern-day Mexico and Central America relied on domesticated maize (corn) to develop the hemisphere’s first settled population around 1200 BCE.
公元前 1200 年左右，现代墨西哥和中美洲的中美洲人依靠驯化玉米（玉米）发展出西半球第一批定居人口。
8 Corn was high in caloric content, easily dried and stored, and, in Mesoamerica’s warm and fertile Gulf Coast, could sometimes be harvested twice in a year.
8 玉米热量含量高，易于干燥和储存，在中美洲温暖肥沃的墨西哥湾沿岸，有时一年可以收获两次。
Corn—as well as other Mesoamerican crops—spread across North America and continues to hold an important spiritual and cultural place in many Native communities.
玉米以及其他中美洲作物遍布北美，并在许多原住民社区中继续占据重要的精神和文化地位。
Agriculture flourished in the fertile river valleys between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean, an area known as the Eastern Woodlands.
密西西比河和大西洋之间肥沃的河谷农业蓬勃发展，该地区被称为东部林地。
There, three crops in particular—corn, beans, and squash, known as the Three Sisters—provided nutritional needs necessary to sustain cities and civilizations.
在那里，特别是被称为“三姐妹”的三种作物——玉米、豆类和南瓜——提供了维持城市和文明所必需的营养需求。
In Woodland areas from the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River to the Atlantic coast, Native communities managed their forest resources by burning underbrush to create vast parklike hunting grounds and to clear the ground for planting the Three Sisters.
在从五大湖和密西西比河到大西洋海岸的林地地区，土著社区通过燃烧灌木丛来管理森林资源，以创建广阔的公园式狩猎场，并清理土地以种植三姐妹树。
Many groups used shifting cultivation, in which farmers cut the forest, burned the undergrowth, and then planted seeds in the nutrient-rich ashes.
许多群体采用轮耕方式，农民砍伐森林，焚烧灌木丛，然后将种子种植在营养丰富的灰烬中。
When crop yields began to decline, farmers moved to another field and allowed the land to recover and the forest to regrow before again cutting the forest, burning the undergrowth, and restarting the cycle.
当农作物产量开始下降时，农民搬到另一块田地，让土地恢复，森林重新生长，然后再次砍伐森林，烧毁灌木丛，然后重新开始循环。
This technique was particularly useful in areas with difficult soil.
这项技术在土壤坚硬的地区特别有用。
In the fertile regions of the Eastern Woodlands, Native American farmers engaged in permanent, intensive agriculture using hand tools.
在东部林地的肥沃地区，美洲原住民农民使用手工工具从事永久性的集约农业。
The rich soil and use of hand tools enabled effective and sustainable farming practices, producing high yields without overburdening the soil.
肥沃的土壤和手工工具的使用使得有效和可持续的农业实践成为可能，在不增加土壤负担的情况下实现高产。
9 Typically in Woodland communities, women practiced agriculture while men hunted and fished.
9 在林地社区，女性通常从事农业，而男性则从事狩猎和捕鱼。
Agriculture allowed for dramatic social change, but for some, it also may have accompanied a decline in health.
农业带来了巨大的社会变革，但对某些人来说，它也可能伴随着健康状况的下降。
Analysis of remains reveals that societies transitioning to agriculture often experienced weaker bones and teeth.
对遗骸的分析表明，向农业过渡的社会往往会出现骨骼和牙齿变弱的情况。
10 But despite these possible declines, agriculture brought important benefits.
10 但尽管存在这些可能的下降，农业仍带来了重要的效益。
Farmers could produce more food than hunters, enabling some members of the community to pursue other skills.
农民可以比猎人生产更多的食物，从而使社区的一些成员能够追求其他技能。
Religious leaders, skilled soldiers, and artists could devote their energy to activities other than food production.
宗教领袖、熟练的士兵和艺术家可以将精力投入到粮食生产以外的活动中。
North America’s Indigenous peoples shared some broad traits.
北美原住民有一些共同的特征。
Spiritual practices, understandings of property, and kinship networks differed markedly from European arrangements.
精神实践、对财产的理解和亲属关系网络与欧洲的安排明显不同。
Most Native Americans did not neatly distinguish between the natural and the supernatural.
大多数美洲原住民并没有清楚地区分自然和超自然现象。
Spiritual power permeated their world and was both tangible and accessible.
精神力量渗透到他们的世界中，而且是有形的、触手可及的。
It could be appealed to and harnessed.
它可以被吸引和利用。
Kinship bound most Native North American people together.
血缘关系将大多数北美原住民联系在一起。
Most people lived in small communities tied by kinship networks.
大多数人生活在由亲属关系网络联系在一起的小社区中。
Many Native cultures understood ancestry as matrilineal: family and clan identity proceeded along the female line, through mothers and daughters, rather than fathers and sons.
许多原住民文化将血统理解为母系：家庭和氏族身份沿着女性血统延续，通过母亲和女儿，而不是父亲和儿子。
Fathers, for instance, often joined mothers’ extended families, and sometimes even a mother’s brothers took a more direct role in child-raising than biological fathers.
例如，父亲经常加入母亲的大家庭，有时甚至母亲的兄弟在抚养孩子方面比亲生父亲扮演更直接的角色。
Therefore, mothers often wielded enormous influence at local levels, and men’s identities and influence often depended on their relationships to women.
因此，母亲往往在地方层面发挥着巨大的影响力，而男性的身份和影响力往往取决于他们与女性的关系。
Native American culture, meanwhile, generally afforded greater sexual and marital freedom than European cultures.
与此同时，美洲原住民文化通常比欧洲文化提供更大的性和婚姻自由。
11 Women, for instance, often chose their husbands, and divorce often was a relatively simple and straightforward process.
11 例如，妇女经常选择自己的丈夫，离婚往往是一个相对简单和直接的过程。
Moreover, most Native peoples’ notions of property rights differed markedly from those of Europeans.
此外，大多数原住民的财产权观念与欧洲人明显不同。
Native Americans generally felt a personal ownership of tools, weapons, or other items that were actively used, and this same rule applied to land and crops.
美洲原住民普遍认为个人拥有工具、武器或其他经常使用的物品，同样的规则也适用于土地和农作物。
Groups and individuals exploited particular pieces of land and used violence or negotiation to exclude others.
团体和个人剥削特定的土地并使用暴力或谈判来排斥其他人。
But the right to the use of land did not imply the right to its permanent possession.
但土地使用权并不意味着永久占有土地的权利。
Native Americans had many ways of communicating, including graphic ones, and some of these artistic and communicative technologies are still used today.
美洲原住民有多种交流方式，包括图形方式，其中一些艺术和交流技术至今仍在使用。
For example, Algonquian-speaking Ojibwes used birch-bark scrolls to record medical treatments, recipes, songs, stories, and more.
例如，讲阿尔冈昆语的奥及布威人使用桦树皮卷轴来记录医疗、食谱、歌曲、故事等。
Other Eastern Woodland peoples wove plant fibers, embroidered skins with porcupine quills, and modeled the earth to make sites of complex ceremonial meaning.
其他东部林地民族编织植物纤维，用豪猪刺刺绣皮肤，并模仿大地建造具有复杂仪式意义的场所。
On the Plains, artisans wove buffalo hair and painted on buffalo skins; in the Pacific Northwest, after the arrival of Europeans, weavers wove goat hair into soft textiles with particular patterns.
在平原，工匠们编织水牛毛并在水牛皮上作画；在欧洲人到来后，太平洋西北地区的织布工将山羊毛编织成具有特殊图案的柔软纺织品。
Maya, Zapotec, and Nahua ancestors in Mesoamerica painted their histories on plant-derived textiles and carved them into stone.
中美洲的玛雅人、萨巴特克人和纳瓦人的祖先将他们的历史描绘在植物纺织品上，并将其雕刻在石头上。
In the Andes, Inca recorders noted information in the form of knotted strings, or khipu .
在安第斯山脉，印加录音师以打结的绳子或 khipu 的形式记录信息。
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Two thousand years ago, some of the largest culture groups in North America were the Puebloan groups, centered in the current-day Greater Southwest (the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico), the Mississippian groups located along the Great River and its tributaries, and the Mesoamerican groups of the areas now known as central Mexico and the Yucatán.
两千多年前，北美最大的一些文化群体包括以现在的大西南地区（美国西南部和墨西哥西北部）为中心的普韦布洛文化群体、位于大河及其支流沿岸的密西西比文化群体，以及现在墨西哥中部和尤卡坦半岛地区的中美洲文化群体。
Previous developments in agricultural technology enabled the explosive growth of the large early societies, such as that at Tenochtitlán in the Valley of Mexico, Cahokia along the Mississippi River, and in the desert oasis areas of the Greater Southwest.
先前农业技术的发展使大型早期社会得以爆炸性增长，例如墨西哥谷的特诺奇蒂特兰、密西西比河沿岸的卡霍基亚以及大西南的沙漠绿洲地区。
Chaco Canyon in northern New Mexico was home to ancestral Puebloan peoples between 900 and 1300 CE.
新墨西哥州北部的查科峡谷是公元 900 至 1300 年间普韦布洛人祖先的家园。
As many as fifteen thousand individuals lived in the Chaco Canyon complex in present-day New Mexico.
多达一万五千人居住在现今新墨西哥州的查科峡谷建筑群中。
13 Sophisticated agricultural practices, extensive trading networks, and even the domestication of animals like turkeys allowed the population to swell.
13 复杂的农业实践、广泛的贸易网络，甚至火鸡等动物的驯化使得人口激增。
Massive residential structures, built from sandstone blocks and lumber carried across great distances, housed hundreds of Puebloan people.
巨大的住宅建筑由砂岩块和长途运输的木材建造而成，居住着数百名普韦布洛人。
One building, Pueblo Bonito, stretched over two acres and rose five stories.
其中一栋建筑名为 Pueblo Bonito，占地两英亩，高五层。
Its six hundred rooms were decorated with copper bells, turquoise decorations, and bright macaws.
它的六百间房间装饰有铜铃、绿松石装饰和明亮的金刚鹦鹉。
14 Homes like those at Pueblo Bonito included a small dugout room, or kiva , which played an important role in a variety of ceremonies and served as an important center for Puebloan life and culture.
14 像普韦布洛博尼托的房屋一样，有一个小休息室，或 kiva，它在各种仪式中发挥着重要作用，是普韦布洛生活和文化的重要中心。
Puebloan spirituality was tied both to the earth and the heavens, as generations carefully charted the stars and designed homes in line with the path of the sun and moon.
普韦布洛人的灵性与大地和天空息息相关，世世代代仔细绘制星星图，根据太阳和月亮的轨迹设计房屋。
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The Puebloan people of Chaco Canyon faced several ecological challenges, including deforestation and overirrigation, which ultimately caused the community to collapse and its people to disperse to smaller settlements.
查科峡谷的普韦布洛人面临着多项生态挑战，包括森林砍伐和过度灌溉，最终导致社区崩溃，人们分散到较小的定居点。
An extreme fifty-year drought began in 1130.
1130年开始了长达五十年的极端干旱。
Shortly thereafter, Chaco Canyon was deserted.
此后不久，查科峡谷就荒无人烟了。
New groups, including the Apache and Navajo, entered the vacated territory and adopted several Puebloan customs.
包括阿帕奇人和纳瓦霍人在内的新群体进入了空出的领土，并采用了一些普韦布洛习俗。
The same drought that plagued the Pueblo also likely affected the Mississippian peoples of the American Midwest and South.
困扰普韦布洛的同样的干旱也可能影响了美国中西部和南部的密西西比人民。
The Mississippians developed one of the largest civilizations north of modern-day Mexico.
密西西比人发展了现代墨西哥北部最大的文明之一。
Roughly one thousand years ago, the largest Mississippian settlement, Cahokia, located just east of modern-day St. Louis, peaked at a population of between ten thousand and thirty thousand.
大约一千年前，密西西比最大的定居点卡霍基亚位于现代圣路易斯以东，人口达到顶峰时有一万到三万。
It rivaled contemporary European cities in size.
它的规模可与当代欧洲城市相媲美。
No city north of modern Mexico, in fact, would match Cahokia’s peak population levels until after the American Revolution.
事实上，直到美国独立战争之后，现代墨西哥北部的任何城市都无法与卡霍基亚的人口峰值水平相媲美。
The city itself spanned two thousand acres and centered on Monks Mound, a large earthen hill that rose ten stories and was larger at its base than the pyramids of Egypt.
这座城市占地两千英亩，以僧侣丘为中心，这是一座十层楼高的大土山，其底部比埃及金字塔还要大。
As with many of the peoples who lived in the Woodlands, life and death in Cahokia were linked to the movement of the stars, sun, and moon, and their ceremonial earthwork structures reflect these important structuring forces.
与居住在林地的许多民族一样，卡霍基亚的生与死与星星、太阳和月亮的运动息息相关，他们的仪式土方结构也反映了这些重要的结构力量。
Cahokia was politically organized around chiefdoms, a hierarchical, clan-based system that gave leaders both secular and sacred authority.
卡霍基亚在政治上是围绕酋长管辖地组织起来的，这是一种基于氏族的等级制度，赋予领导人世俗和神圣的权力。
The size of the city and the extent of its influence suggest that the city relied on a number of lesser chiefdoms under the authority of a paramount leader.
城市的规模及其影响力的程度表明，该城市依赖于最高领导人权威下的许多较小的酋长国。
Social stratification was partly preserved through frequent warfare.
频繁的战争在一定程度上保留了社会分层。
War captives were enslaved, and these captives formed an important part of the economy in the North American Southeast.
战争俘虏被奴役，这些俘虏构成了北美东南部经济的重要组成部分。
Native American slavery was not based on holding people as property.
美洲原住民奴隶制并不是以将人视为财产为基础的。
Instead, Native Americans understood the enslaved as people who lacked kinship networks.
相反，美洲原住民将奴隶理解为缺乏亲属关系网络的人。
Slavery, then, was not always a permanent condition.
那么，奴隶制并不总是永久的状态。
Very often, a formerly enslaved person could become a fully integrated member of the community.
很多时候，一个曾经被奴役的人可以成为一个完全融入社会的成员。
Adoption or marriage could enable an enslaved person to enter a kinship network and join the community.
收养或婚姻可以使被奴役的人进入亲属关系网络并加入社区。
Slavery and captive trading became an important way that many Native communities regrew and gained or maintained power.
奴隶制和俘虏贸易成为许多原住民社区重建并获得或维持权力的重要方式。
Around 1050, Cahokia experienced what one archaeologist has called a “big bang,” which included “a virtually instantaneous and pervasive shift in all things political, social, and ideological.” 16 The population grew almost 500 percent in only one generation, and new people groups were absorbed into the city and its supporting communities.
1050 年左右，卡霍基亚经历了一位考古学家所说的“大爆炸”，其中包括“政治、社会和意识形态方面几乎瞬间发生的普遍转变”。 16 仅一代人的时间人口就增长了近 500%，新的人群被吸收到城市及其配套社区中。
By 1300, the once-powerful city had undergone a series of strains that led to collapse.
到了 1300 年，这座曾经强大的城市经历了一系列的压力，最终导致了崩溃。
Scholars previously pointed to ecological disaster or slow depopulation through emigration, but new research instead emphasizes mounting warfare, or internal political tensions.
学者们此前指出，这是生态灾难或移民导致的人口缓慢减少，但新的研究却强调战争加剧或内部政治紧张局势。
Environmental explanations suggest that population growth placed too great a burden on the arable land.
环境解释表明，人口增长给耕地带来了过大的负担。
Others suggest that the demand for fuel and building materials led to deforestation, erosion, and perhaps an extended drought.
其他人则认为，对燃料和建筑材料的需求导致了森林砍伐、侵蚀，或许还导致了长期干旱。
Recent evidence, including defensive stockades, suggests that political turmoil among the ruling elite and threats from external enemies may explain the end of the once-great civilization.
最近的证据，包括防御栅栏，表明统治精英之间的政治动荡和外部敌人的威胁可能解释了曾经伟大文明的终结。
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North American communities were connected by kin, politics, and culture and sustained by long-distance trading routes.
北美社区通过亲属、政治和文化联系在一起，并通过长途贸易路线维持。
The Mississippi River served as an important trade artery, but all of the continent’s waterways were vital to transportation and communication.
密西西比河是重要的贸易动脉，但非洲大陆的所有水道对于交通和通讯都至关重要。
Cahokia became a key trading center partly because of its position near the Mississippi, Illinois, and Missouri Rivers.
卡霍基亚成为重要的贸易中心，部分原因是其靠近密西西比河、伊利诺伊河和密苏里河的位置。
These rivers created networks that stretched from the Great Lakes to the American Southeast.
这些河流形成了从五大湖一直延伸到美国东南部的网络。
Archaeologists can identify materials, like seashells, that traveled over a thousand miles to reach the center of this civilization.
考古学家可以识别贝壳等材料，它们经过一千英里才到达这个文明的中心。
At least 3,500 years ago, the community at what is now Poverty Point, Louisiana, had access to copper from present-day Canada and flint from modern-day Indiana.
至少在 3,500 年前，现在路易斯安那州波弗蒂波因特的社区就可以从现在的加拿大获得铜，从现在的印第安纳州获得燧石。
Sheets of mica found at the sacred Serpent Mound site near the Ohio River came from the Allegheny Mountains, and obsidian from nearby earthworks came from Mexico.
在俄亥俄河附近的神圣蛇丘遗址发现的云母片来自阿勒格尼山脉，附近土方工程中发现的黑曜石来自墨西哥。
Turquoise from the Greater Southwest was used at Teotihuacan 1200 years ago.
1200 年前，特奥蒂瓦坎就使用了来自大西南地区的绿松石。
In the Eastern Woodlands, many Native American societies lived in smaller, dispersed communities to take advantage of rich soils and abundant rivers and streams.
在东部林地，许多美洲原住民社会居住在较小的、分散的社区中，以利用肥沃的土壤和丰富的河流和溪流。
The Lenapes, also known as Delawares, farmed the bottomlands throughout the Hudson and Delaware River watersheds in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware.
莱纳佩斯人，也称为特拉华人，在纽约州、宾夕法尼亚州、新泽西州和特拉华州的哈德逊河和特拉华河流域的低地进行耕种。
Their hundreds of settlements, stretching from southern Massachusetts through Delaware, were loosely bound together by political, social, and spiritual connections.
他们的数百个定居点从马萨诸塞州南部一直延伸到特拉华州，通过政治、社会和精神联系松散地联系在一起。
Dispersed and relatively independent, Lenape communities were bound together by oral histories, ceremonial traditions, consensus-based political organization, kinship networks, and a shared clan system.
莱纳佩社区分散且相对独立，通过口述历史、仪式传统、基于共识的政治组织、亲属网络和共享氏族制度将他们联系在一起。
Kinship tied the various Lenape communities and clans together, and society was organized along matrilineal lines.
血缘关系将各个莱纳佩社区和氏族联系在一起，社会是按照母系血统组织起来的。
Marriage occurred between clans, and a married man joined the clan of his wife.
婚姻发生在氏族之间，已婚男子加入其妻子的氏族。
Lenape women wielded authority over marriages, households, and agricultural production and may even have played a significant part in determining the selection of leaders, called sachems.
莱纳佩妇女在婚姻、家庭和农业生产方面拥有权威，甚至可能在决定领导人（称为酋长）的选择方面发挥了重要作用。
Dispersed authority, small settlements, and kin-based organization contributed to the long-lasting stability and resilience of Lenape communities.
分散的权力、小型定居点和以亲属为基础的组织有助于莱纳佩社区的长期稳定和恢复力。
18 One or more sachems governed Lenape communities by the consent of their people.
18 一名或多名酋长在征得人民同意的情况下管理莱纳佩社区。
Lenape sachems acquired their authority by demonstrating wisdom and experience.
莱纳佩酋长通过展示智慧和经验获得了权威。
This differed from the hierarchical organization of many Mississippian cultures.
这与许多密西西比文化的等级组织不同。
Large gatherings did exist, however, as dispersed communities and their leaders gathered for ceremonial purposes or to make big decisions.
然而，大型集会确实存在，因为分散的社区及其领导人为了仪式目的或做出重大决定而聚集在一起。
Sachems spoke for their people in larger councils that included men, women, and elders.
酋长在包括男性、女性和长老的大型议会中为他们的人民发言。
The Lenapes experienced occasional tensions with other Indigenous groups like the Iroquois to the north or the Susquehannock to the south, but the lack of defensive fortifications near Lenape communities convinced archaeologists that the Lenapes avoided large-scale warfare.
莱纳佩人偶尔与其他土著群体（如北部的易洛魁人或南部的萨斯奎汉诺克人）发生紧张关系，但莱纳佩人社区附近缺乏防御工事，使考古学家相信莱纳佩人避免了大规模战争。
The continued longevity of Lenape societies, which began centuries before European contact, was also due to their skills as farmers and fishers.
莱纳佩社会的持续长寿也归功于他们作为农民和渔民的技能，这种社会早在欧洲人接触之前几个世纪就开始了。
Along with the Three Sisters, Lenape women planted tobacco, sunflowers, and gourds.
莱纳佩妇女与三姐妹一起种植烟草、向日葵和葫芦。
They harvested fruits and nuts from trees and cultivated numerous medicinal plants, which they used with great proficiency.
他们从树上采摘水果和坚果，并种植许多药用植物，并熟练地使用这些植物。
The Lenapes organized their communities to take advantage of growing seasons and the migration patterns of animals and fowl that were a part of their diet.
莱纳佩斯人组织他们的社区，以利用动物和家禽的生长季节和迁徙模式，这些是他们饮食的一部分。
During planting and harvesting seasons, Lenapes gathered in larger groups to coordinate their labor and take advantage of local abundance.
在种植和收获季节，勒纳佩斯会聚集成更大的群体来协调他们的劳动并利用当地的丰富资源。
As proficient fishers, they organized seasonal fish camps to net shellfish and catch shad.
作为熟练的渔民，他们组织季节性捕鱼营地来网捕贝类和捕获鲥鱼。
Lenapes wove nets, baskets, mats, and a variety of household materials from the rushes found along the streams, rivers, and coasts.
莱纳佩斯用溪流、河流和海岸发现的灯芯草编织网、篮子、垫子和各种家居材料。
They made their homes in some of the most fertile and abundant lands in the Eastern Woodlands and used their skills to create a stable and prosperous civilization.
他们在东部林地一些最肥沃、最丰富的土地上安家，并利用自己的技能创造了稳定和繁荣的文明。
The first Dutch and Swedish settlers who encountered the Lenapes in the seventeenth century recognized Lenape prosperity and quickly sought their friendship.
十七世纪，第一批遇到莱纳佩人的荷兰和瑞典定居者认识到了莱纳佩人的繁荣，并迅速寻求与他们建立友谊。
Their lives came to depend on it.
他们的生活开始依赖于此。
In the Pacific Northwest, the Kwakwaka’wakw, Tlingits, Haidas, and hundreds of other peoples, speaking dozens of languages, thrived in a land with a moderate climate, lush forests, and many rivers.
在太平洋西北地区，夸瓦卡瓦夸人、特林吉特人、海达人以及其他数百个民族，讲着数十种语言，在气候温和、森林茂密、河流众多的土地上繁衍生息。
The peoples of this region depended on salmon for survival and valued it accordingly.
该地区的人民依赖鲑鱼生存并因此重视它。
Images of salmon decorated totem poles, baskets, canoes, oars, and other tools.
鲑鱼的图像装饰着图腾柱、篮子、独木舟、桨和其他工具。
The fish was treated with spiritual respect and its image represented prosperity, life, and renewal.
鱼受到精神上的尊重，它的形象代表着繁荣、生命和更新。
Sustainable harvesting practices ensured the survival of salmon populations.
可持续的捕捞方法确保了鲑鱼种群的生存。
The Coast Salish people and several others celebrated the First Salmon Ceremony when the first migrating salmon was spotted each season.
当每个季节发现第一条洄游的鲑鱼时，海岸萨利什人和其他一些人都会庆祝第一条鲑鱼仪式。
Elders closely observed the size of the salmon run and delayed harvesting to ensure that a sufficient number survived to spawn and return in the future.
长老们密切观察鲑鱼洄游的规模和推迟捕捞，以确保有足够数量的鲑鱼存活下来，以便将来产卵和返回。
19 Men commonly used nets, hooks, and other small tools to capture salmon as they migrated upriver to spawn.
19 当鲑鱼洄游到上游产卵时，人们通常使用网、钩子和其他小工具来捕捉它们。
Massive cedar canoes, as long as fifty feet and carrying as many as twenty men, also enabled extensive fishing expeditions in the Pacific Ocean, where skilled fishermen caught halibut, sturgeon, and other fish, sometimes hauling thousands of pounds in a single canoe.
巨大的雪松独木舟长达 50 英尺，可容纳多达 20 人，也使得太平洋上的广泛捕鱼活动成为可能，熟练的渔民在那里捕获大比目鱼、鲟鱼和其他鱼类，有时在一艘独木舟上拖运数千磅的鱼类。
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Food surpluses enabled significant population growth, and the Pacific Northwest became one of the most densely populated regions of North America.
粮食过剩导致人口大幅增长，太平洋西北地区成为北美人口最稠密的地区之一。
The combination of population density and surplus food created a unique social organization centered on elaborate feasts, called potlatches.
人口密度和剩余食物的结合创造了一种独特的社会组织，以精心制作的盛宴为中心，称为夸富宴。
These potlatches celebrated births and weddings and determined social status.
这些夸富宴庆祝出生和婚礼并确定社会地位。
The party lasted for days and hosts demonstrated their wealth and power by entertaining guests with food, artwork, and performances.
聚会持续了数天，主人通过用食物、艺术品和表演招待客人来展示他们的财富和权力。
The more the hosts gave away, the more prestige and power they had within the group.
东道主付出的越多，他们在团体中的威望和权力就越大。
Some men saved for decades to host an extravagant potlatch that would in turn give him greater respect and power within the community.
有些人攒了几十年的钱来举办一场奢侈的夸富宴，这反过来会让他在社区中获得更大的尊重和权力。
Many peoples of the Pacific Northwest built elaborate plank houses out of the region’s abundant cedar trees.
太平洋西北地区的许多民族用该地区丰富的雪松树建造了精致的木板房屋。
The five-hundred-foot-long Suquamish Oleman House (or Old Man House), for instance, rested on the banks of Puget Sound.
例如，五百英尺长的苏夸米什奥莱曼别墅（或老人别墅）坐落在普吉特湾沿岸。
21 Giant cedar trees were also carved and painted in the shape of animals or other figures to tell stories and express identities.
21棵巨大的雪松树还被雕刻成动物或其他人物的形状，以讲述故事和表达身份。
These totem poles became the most recognizable artistic form of the Pacific Northwest, but people also carved masks and other wooden items, such as hand drums and rattles, out of the region’s great trees.
这些图腾柱成为太平洋西北地区最知名的艺术形式，但人们还用该地区的大树雕刻面具和其他木制品，例如手鼓和拨浪鼓。
Despite commonalities, Native cultures varied greatly.
尽管有共同点，但土著文化差异很大。
The New World was marked by diversity and contrast.
新世界的特点是多样性和对比。
By the time Europeans were poised to cross the Atlantic, Native Americans spoke hundreds of languages and lived in keeping with the hemisphere’s many climates.
当欧洲人准备横渡大西洋时，美洲原住民已经讲了数百种语言，并适应了西半球的多种气候。
Some lived in cities, others in small bands.
有些人住在城市里，有些人则结成小团体。
Some migrated seasonally; others settled permanently.
有些是季节性迁徙；有些是季节性迁徙。其他人永久定居。
All Native peoples had long histories and well-formed, unique cultures that developed over millennia.
所有原住民都拥有悠久的历史和数千年发展起来的完善而独特的文化。
But the arrival of Europeans changed everything.
但欧洲人的到来改变了一切。
Scandinavian seafarers reached the New World long before Columbus.
斯堪的纳维亚海员早在哥伦布之前就到达了新大陆。
At their peak they sailed as far east as Constantinople and raided settlements as far south as North Africa.
在他们的鼎盛时期，他们向东航行至君士坦丁堡，并袭击了南至北非的定居点。
They established limited colonies in Iceland and Greenland and, around the year 1000, Leif Erikson reached Newfoundland in present-day Canada.
他们在冰岛和格陵兰岛建立了有限的殖民地，并于 1000 年左右，雷夫·埃里克森 (Leif Erikson) 到达了位于现今加拿大的纽芬兰。
But the Norse colony failed.
但挪威殖民地失败了。
Culturally and geographically isolated, the Norse were driven back to the sea by some combination of limited resources, inhospitable weather, food shortages, and Native resistance.
在文化和地理上与世隔绝，挪威人由于有限的资源、恶劣的天气、食物短缺和土著抵抗而被迫返回大海。
Then, centuries before Columbus, the Crusades linked Europe with the wealth, power, and knowledge of Asia.
然后，在哥伦布之前几个世纪，十字军东征将欧洲与亚洲的财富、权力和知识联系在一起。
Europeans rediscovered or adopted Greek, Roman, and Muslim knowledge.
欧洲人重新发现或采用了希腊、罗马和穆斯林知识。
The hemispheric dissemination of goods and knowledge not only sparked the Renaissance but fueled long-term European expansion.
商品和知识在西半球的传播不仅引发了文艺复兴，而且推动了欧洲的长期扩张。
Asian goods flooded European markets, creating a demand for new commodities.
亚洲商品涌入欧洲市场，创造了对新商品的需求。
This trade created vast new wealth, and Europeans battled one another for trade supremacy.
这种贸易创造了巨大的新财富，欧洲人为了贸易霸权而互相争斗。
European nation-states consolidated under the authority of powerful kings.
欧洲民族国家在强大国王的权威下得到巩固。
A series of military conflicts between England and France—the Hundred Years’ War—accelerated nationalism and cultivated the financial and military administration necessary to maintain nation-states.
英法之间的一系列军事冲突——百年战争——加速了民族主义，并培育了维持民族国家所必需的财政和军事管理。
In Spain, the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile consolidated the two most powerful kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula.
在西班牙，阿拉贡的费迪南德和卡斯蒂利亚的伊莎贝拉的婚姻巩固了伊比利亚半岛两个最强大的王国。
The Crusades had never ended in Iberia: the Spanish crown concluded centuries of intermittent warfare—the Reconquista—by expelling Muslim Moors and Iberian Jews from the Iberian peninsula in 1492, just as Christopher Columbus sailed west.
十字军东征在伊比利亚从未结束：西班牙王室于 1492 年将穆斯林摩尔人和伊比利亚犹太人驱逐出伊比利亚半岛，结束了长达数个世纪的断断续续的战争（收复失地运动），正如克里斯托弗·哥伦布向西航行一样。
With new power, these new nations—and their newly empowered monarchs—yearned to access the wealth of Asia.
凭借新的权力，这些新国家及其新获得权力的君主渴望获得亚洲的财富。
Seafaring Italian traders commanded the Mediterranean and controlled trade with Asia.
意大利航海商人控制了地中海并控制了与亚洲的贸易。
Spain and Portugal, at the edges of Europe, relied on middlemen and paid higher prices for Asian goods.
位于欧洲边缘的西班牙和葡萄牙依赖中间商，为亚洲商品支付更高的价格。
They sought a more direct route.
他们寻求一条更直接的路线。
And so they looked to the Atlantic.
于是他们把目光投向了大西洋。
Portugal invested heavily in exploration.
葡萄牙在勘探方面投入巨资。
From his estate on the Sagres Peninsula of Portugal, a rich sailing port, Prince Henry the Navigator (Infante Henry, Duke of Viseu) invested in research and technology and underwrote many technological breakthroughs.
航海家亨利王子（维塞乌公爵亨利王子）在其位于葡萄牙萨格里什半岛（一个富裕的航海港口）的庄园中投资了研究和技术，并资助了许多技术突破。
His investments bore fruit.
他的投资取得了成果。
In the fifteenth century, Portuguese sailors perfected the astrolabe, a tool to calculate latitude, and the caravel, a ship well suited for ocean exploration.
十五世纪，葡萄牙水手完善了星盘（一种计算纬度的工具）和轻快帆船（一种非常适合海洋探索的船只）。
Both were technological breakthroughs.
两者都是技术突破。
The astrolabe allowed for precise navigation, and the caravel, unlike more common vessels designed for trading on the relatively placid Mediterranean, was a rugged ship with a deep draft capable of making lengthy voyages on the open ocean and, equally important, carrying large amounts of cargo while doing so.
星盘可以实现精确导航，而卡拉维尔帆船与设计用于在相对平静的地中海上进行贸易的更常见船只不同，是一艘坚固耐用的船只，吃水深，能够在公海进行长途航行，同样重要的是，在这样做时可以运载大量货物。
Blending economic and religious motivations, the Portuguese established forts along the Atlantic coast of Africa during the fifteenth century, inaugurating centuries of European colonization there.
结合经济和宗教动机，葡萄牙人在十五世纪沿非洲大西洋沿岸建立了堡垒，开启了欧洲几个世纪的殖民统治。
Portuguese trading posts generated new profits that funded further trade and further colonization.
葡萄牙的贸易站创造了新的利润，为进一步的贸易和进一步的殖民化提供了资金。
Trading posts spread across the vast coastline of Africa, and by the end of the fifteenth century, Vasco da Gama leapfrogged his way around the coasts of Africa to reach India and other lucrative Asian markets.
贸易站遍布非洲广阔的海岸线，到十五世纪末，瓦斯科·达·伽马跨越非洲海岸到达印度和其他利润丰厚的亚洲市场。
The vagaries of ocean currents and the limits of contemporary technology forced Iberian sailors to sail west into the open sea before cutting back east to Africa.
洋流的变幻莫测和当代技术的限制迫使伊比利亚水手向西航行进入公海，然后向东返回非洲。
So doing, the Spanish and Portuguese stumbled on several islands off the coast of Europe and Africa, including the Azores, the Canary Islands, and the Cape Verde Islands.
这样，西班牙人和葡萄牙人就偶然发现了欧洲和非洲海岸附近的几个岛屿，包括亚速尔群岛、加那利群岛和佛得角群岛。
They became training grounds for the later colonization of the Americas and saw the first large-scale cultivation of sugar by enslaved laborers.
它们成为后来美洲殖民的训练场，并见证了奴隶劳工首次大规模种植糖业。
Sugar was originally grown in Asia but became a popular, widely profitable luxury item consumed by the nobility of Europe.
糖最初种植于亚洲，但后来成为欧洲贵族消费的一种流行且利润丰厚的奢侈品。
The Portuguese learned the sugar-growing process from Mediterranean plantations started by Muslims, using imported enslaved labor from southern Russia and Islamic countries.
葡萄牙人从穆斯林创办的地中海种植园中学到了制糖工艺，使用了来自俄罗斯南部和伊斯兰国家的进口奴工。
Sugar was a difficult crop.
糖是一种困难的作物。
It required tropical temperatures, daily rainfall, unique soil conditions, and a fourteen-month growing season.
它需要热带气温、每日降雨量、独特的土壤条件和十四个月的生长季节。
But on the newly discovered, mostly uninhabited Atlantic islands, the Portuguese had found new, defensible land to support sugar production.
但在新发现的、大部分无人居住的大西洋岛屿上，葡萄牙人发现了新的、可防御的土地来支持糖生产。
New patterns of human and ecological destruction followed.
人类和生态破坏的新模式随之而来。
Isolated from the mainlands of Europe and Africa for millennia, Canary Island natives—known as the Guanches—were enslaved or perished soon after Europeans arrived.
加那利群岛的原住民（被称为关奇斯人）与欧洲和非洲大陆隔绝了数千年，在欧洲人抵达后不久就被奴役或死亡。
This demographic disaster presaged the demographic results for the Native American populations upon the arrival of the Spanish.
这场人口灾难预示着西班牙人到来后美洲原住民的人口统计结果。
Portugal’s would-be planters needed workers to cultivate the difficult, labor-intensive crop.
葡萄牙的未来种植园主需要工人来种植这种困难的劳动密集型作物。
They first turned to the trade relationships that Portuguese merchants established with African city-states in Senegambia, along the Gold Coast, as well as the kingdoms of Benin, Kongo, and Ndongo.
他们首先转向葡萄牙商人与塞内冈比亚、黄金海岸沿线的非洲城邦以及贝宁、刚果和恩东戈王国建立的贸易关系。
22 The Portuguese turned to enslaved Africans from the mainland as a labor source for these island plantations.
22 葡萄牙人转向来自大陆的被奴役的非洲人作为这些岛屿种植园的劳动力来源。
At the beginning of this Euroafrican slave-trading system, African leaders traded war captives—who by custom forfeited their freedom if captured during battle—for Portuguese guns, iron, and manufactured goods.
在这个欧洲非洲奴隶贸易体系开始时，非洲领导人用战俘（按照惯例，如果在战斗中被俘虏，他们就会丧失自由）换取葡萄牙的枪支、钢铁和制成品。
It is important to note that slaving in Africa, like slaving among Indigenous Americans, bore little resemblance to the chattel slavery of the antebellum United States.
值得注意的是，非洲的奴隶制，就像美洲原住民的奴隶制一样，与美国内战前的动产奴隶制几乎没有相似之处。
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From bases along the Atlantic coast, the Portuguese began purchasing enslaved people for export to the Atlantic islands of Madeira, the Canaries, and the Cape Verdes to work the sugar fields.
葡萄牙人从大西洋沿岸的基地开始购买奴隶，然后出口到大西洋的马德拉群岛、加那利群岛和佛得角群岛，在糖田劳作。
Thus, were born the first great Atlantic plantations.
因此，第一个伟大的大西洋种植园诞生了。
A few decades later, at the end of the 15 th century, the Portuguese plantation system developed on the island of São Tomé became a model for the plantation system as it was expanded across the Atlantic.
几十年后，即15世纪末，在圣多美岛上发展起来的葡萄牙种植园系统成为跨大西洋扩张的种植园系统的典范。
Spain, too, stood on the cutting edge of maritime technology.
西班牙也处于海事技术的最前沿。
Spanish sailors had become masters of the caravels.
西班牙水手已经成为轻快帆船的大师。
As Portugal consolidated control over African trading networks and the circuitous eastbound sea route to Asia, Spain yearned for its own path to empire.
随着葡萄牙巩固了对非洲贸易网络和通往亚洲的迂回东行航线的控制，西班牙渴望开辟自己的帝国之路。
Christopher Columbus, a skilled Italian-born sailor who had studied under Portuguese navigators, promised just that opportunity.
克里斯托弗·哥伦布（Christopher Columbus）是一位出生于意大利的熟练水手，曾在葡萄牙航海家的指导下学习，他承诺了这个机会。
Educated Asians and Europeans of the fifteenth century knew the world was round.
十五世纪受过教育的亚洲人和欧洲人知道世界是圆的。
They also knew that while it was therefore technically possible to reach Asia by sailing west from Europe—thereby avoiding Italian or Portuguese middlemen—the earth’s vast size would doom even the greatest caravels to starvation and thirst long before they ever reached their destination.
他们还知道，虽然技术上可以从欧洲向西航行到达亚洲，从而避免意大利或葡萄牙的中间商，但地球的巨大面积将注定即使是最伟大的轻快帆船在到达目的地之前也会挨饿和干渴。
But Columbus underestimated the size of the globe by a full two thirds and therefore believed it was possible.
但哥伦布低估了地球的大小整整三分之二，因此相信这是可能的。
After unsuccessfully shopping his proposed expedition in several European courts, he convinced Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand of Spain to provide him three small ships, which set sail in 1492.
在几个欧洲法院未能成功购买他提议的探险队后，他说服西班牙女王伊莎贝拉和斐迪南国王为他提供三艘小船，并于 1492 年起航。
Columbus was both confoundingly wrong about the size of the earth and spectacularly lucky that two large continents lurked in his path.
哥伦布对地球大小的认识犯了令人震惊的错误，但他又非常幸运，因为在他的道路上潜伏着两块大陆。
On October 12, 1492, after two months at sea, the Niña , Pinta , and Santa María and their ninety men landed in the modern-day Bahamas.
1492 年 10 月 12 日，经过两个月的海上航行后，尼娜号、平塔号和圣玛丽亚号以及船上的 90 名船员在今天的巴哈马群岛登陆。
The Indigenous Arawaks, or Taíno, populated the Caribbean islands.
土著阿拉瓦克人（或称泰诺人）居住在加勒比群岛。
They fished and grew corn, yams, and cassava.
他们捕鱼并种植玉米、山药和木薯。
Columbus described them as innocents.
哥伦布形容他们是无辜的。
“They are very gentle and without knowledge of what is evil; nor the sins of murder or theft,” he reported to the Spanish crown.
“他们非常温和，不知道什么是邪恶；也不知道谋杀或盗窃的罪孽，”他向西班牙王室报告。
“Your highness may believe that in all the world there can be no better people.
“殿下也许会认为，天下没有比这更好的人了。
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They love their neighbors as themselves, and their speech is the sweetest and gentlest in the world, and always with a smile.” But Columbus had come for wealth and he could find little.
他们爱邻如己，言语是世界上最甜蜜、最温柔的，而且总是面带微笑。”但哥伦布是为了财富而来，却一无所获。
The Arawaks, however, wore small gold ornaments.
然而，阿拉瓦克人则佩戴小金饰。
Columbus left thirty-nine Spaniards at a military fort on Hispaniola to find and secure the source of the gold while he returned to Spain, with a dozen captured and branded Arawaks.
哥伦布将三十九名西班牙人留在伊斯帕尼奥拉岛的一座军事堡垒中寻找并确保黄金的来源，而他则带着十几名被俘并被打上烙印的阿拉瓦克人返回西班牙。
Columbus arrived to great acclaim and quickly worked to outfit a return voyage.
哥伦布抵达后受到热烈欢迎，并迅速准备好回程的装备。
Spain’s New World motives were clear from the beginning.
西班牙的新世界动机从一开始就很明确。
If outfitted for a return voyage, Columbus promised the Spanish crown gold and enslaved laborers.
如果为回程做好准备，哥伦布承诺将给予西班牙王冠黄金和奴役劳工。
Columbus reported, “With fifty men they can all be subjugated and made to do what is required of them.” 24
哥伦布报告说：“只要有五十个人，他们就可以被征服，并被迫按照他们的要求去做。” 24
Columbus was outfitted with seventeen ships and over one thousand men to return to the West Indies (Columbus made four voyages to the New World).
哥伦布配备了十七艘船和一千多人返回西印度群岛（哥伦布四次航行到新大陆）。
Still believing he had landed in the East Indies, he promised to reward Isabella and Ferdinand’s investment.
他仍然相信自己已经抵达东印度群岛，并承诺奖励伊莎贝拉和费迪南德的投资。
But when material wealth proved slow in coming, the Spanish embarked on a vicious campaign to extract every possible ounce of wealth from the Caribbean.
但当物质财富来得缓慢时，西班牙人开始了一场恶毒的运动，从加勒比海榨取每一分可能的财富。
The Spanish decimated the Arawaks.
西班牙人屠杀了阿拉瓦克人。
Bartolomé de Las Casas traveled to the New World in 1502 and later wrote, “I saw with these Eyes of mine the Spaniards for no other reason, but only to gratify their bloody mindedness, cut off the Hands, Noses, and Ears, both of Indians and Indianesses.” 25 When the enslaved laborers exhausted the islands’ meager gold reserves, the Spaniards forced them to labor on their huge new estates, the encomiendas .
巴托洛梅·德拉斯·卡萨斯于 1502 年前往新大陆，后来写道：“我用我的眼睛看到西班牙人，没有其他原因，只是为了满足他们血腥的想法，砍掉了印第安人和印度女人的手、鼻子和耳朵。” 25 当被奴役的劳工耗尽了岛上微薄的黄金储备时，西班牙人强迫他们在巨大的新庄园（即封地）上劳动。
Las Casas described European barbarities in cruel detail.
拉斯卡萨斯以残酷的细节描述了欧洲的野蛮行径。
By presuming the natives had no humanity, the Spaniards utterly abandoned theirs.
西班牙人认为当地人没有人性，因此完全抛弃了他们的人性。
Casual violence and dehumanizing exploitation ravaged the Arawaks.
偶然的暴力和非人性的剥削蹂躏着阿拉瓦克人。
The Indigenous population collapsed.
原住民人口锐减。
Within a few generations the whole island of Hispaniola had been depopulated and a whole people exterminated.
几代人之内，整个伊斯帕尼奥拉岛的人口就已经减少，整个民族都被灭绝了。
Historians’ estimates of the island’s pre-contact population range from fewer than one million to as many as eight million (Las Casas estimated it at three million).
历史学家对该岛接触前人口的估计范围从不到 100 万到多达 800 万（拉斯卡萨斯估计为 300 万）。
In a few short years, they were gone.
短短几年，他们就消失了。
“Who in future generations will believe this?” Las Casas wondered.
“后代谁会相信这个？”拉斯卡萨斯想知道。
“I myself writing it as a knowledgeable eyewitness can hardly believe it.”
“我自己作为一个知识渊博的目击者写下这句话，简直不敢相信。”
Despite the diversity of Native populations and the existence of several strong empires, Native Americans were wholly unprepared for the arrival of Europeans.
尽管原住民人口多样化并且存在几个强大的帝国，但美洲原住民对欧洲人的到来完全没有准备。
Biology magnified European cruelties.
生物学放大了欧洲的残酷行为。
Cut off from the Old World, its domesticated animals, and its immunological history, Native Americans lived free from the terrible diseases that ravaged populations in Asia, Europe and Africa.
由于与旧大陆、驯养动物和免疫历史隔绝，美洲原住民没有遭受曾在亚洲、欧洲和非洲肆虐的可怕疾病的影响。
But their blessing now became a curse.
但他们的祝福现在变成了诅咒。
Native Americans lacked the immunities that Europeans and Africans had developed over centuries of deadly epidemics, and so when Europeans arrived, carrying smallpox, typhus, influenza, diphtheria, measles, and hepatitis, plagues decimated Native communities.
美洲原住民缺乏欧洲人和非洲人在几个世纪以来致命流行病中形成的免疫力，因此当欧洲人携带天花、斑疹伤寒、流感、白喉、麻疹和肝炎抵达时，瘟疫摧毁了原住民社区。
26 Many died in war and slavery, but millions died in epidemics.
26 许多人死于战争和奴役，但数百万人死于流行病。
All told, in fact, some scholars estimate that as much as 90 percent of the population of the Americas perished within the first century and a half of European contact.
事实上，总而言之，一些学者估计多达 90% 的美洲人口在欧洲接触的一个半世纪内死亡。
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Though ravaged by disease and warfare, Native Americans forged middle grounds, resisted with violence, accommodated and adapted to the challenges of colonialism, and continued to shape the patterns of life throughout the New World for hundreds of years.
尽管饱受疾病和战争的蹂躏，美洲原住民仍找到中间立场，以暴力抵抗，适应和适应殖民主义的挑战，并在数百年里继续塑造整个新世界的生活模式。
But the Europeans kept coming.
但欧洲人不断到来。
As news of the Spanish conquest spread, wealth-hungry Spaniards poured into the New World seeking land, gold, and titles.
随着西班牙征服的消息传开，渴望财富的西班牙人涌入新大陆寻求土地、黄金和头衔。
A New World empire spread from Spain’s Caribbean foothold.
一个新世界帝国从西班牙的加勒比海立足点蔓延开来。
Motives were plain: said one soldier, “we came here to serve God and the king, and also to get rich.” 28 Mercenaries joined the conquest and raced to capture the human and material wealth of the New World.
动机很明显：一名士兵说，“我们来这里是为了侍奉上帝和国王，也是为了致富。” 28 名雇佣兵加入了征战行列，竞相夺取新世界的人力和物质财富。
The Spanish managed labor relations through a legal system known as the encomienda , an exploitive feudal arrangement in which Spain tied Indigenous laborers to vast estates.
西班牙人通过一种被称为“encomienda”的法律制度来管理劳资关系，这是一种剥削性的封建安排，西班牙将土著劳工绑在大片土地上。
In the encomienda , the Spanish crown granted a person not only land but a specified number of natives as well.
在封地中，西班牙王室不仅授予一个人土地，还授予一定数量的当地人。
Encomenderos brutalized their laborers.
恩科曼德罗斯残酷地对待他们的劳工。
After Bartolomé de Las Casas published his incendiary account of Spanish abuses ( The Destruction of the Indies ), Spanish authorities abolished the encomienda in 1542 and replaced it with the repartimiento .
在巴托洛梅·德拉斯卡萨斯发表了他对西班牙暴行的煽动性描述（《印度群岛的毁灭》）后，西班牙当局于 1542 年废除了封建制，并以重新分配制取代。
Intended as a milder system, the repartimiento nevertheless replicated many of the abuses of the older system, and the rapacious exploitation of the Native population continued as Spain spread its empire over the Americas.
作为一个较为温和的制度，Repartimiento仍然复制了旧制度的许多滥用行为，并且随着西班牙将其帝国扩展到美洲，对原住民的贪婪剥削仍在继续。
As Spain’s New World empire expanded, Spanish conquerors met the massive empires of Central and South America, civilizations that dwarfed anything found in North America.
随着西班牙新世界帝国的扩张，西班牙征服者遇到了中美洲和南美洲的庞大帝国，这些文明使北美的任何文明都相形见绌。
In Central America the Maya built massive temples, sustained large populations, and constructed a complex and long-lasting civilization with a written language, advanced mathematics, and stunningly accurate calendars.
在中美洲，玛雅人建造了巨大的寺庙，养活了大批人口，并建立了复杂而持久的文明，拥有书面语言、先进的数学和极其准确的历法。
But Maya civilization, although it had not disappeared, nevertheless collapsed before European arrival, likely because of droughts and unsustainable agricultural practices.
但玛雅文明虽然没有消失，但在欧洲人到来之前就崩溃了，可能是因为干旱和不可持续的农业实践。
But the eclipse of the Maya only heralded the later rise of the most powerful Native civilization ever seen in the Western Hemisphere: the Aztecs.
但玛雅人的衰落只是预示着西半球有史以来最强大的本土文明的崛起：阿兹特克人。
Militaristic migrants from northern Mexico, the Aztecs moved south into the Valley of Mexico, conquered their way to dominance, and built the largest empire in the New World.
阿兹特克人是来自墨西哥北部的军国主义移民，向南进入墨西哥谷，征服了统治地位，并建立了新世界最大的帝国。
When the Spaniards arrived in Mexico they found a sprawling civilization centered around Tenochtitlán, an awe-inspiring city built on a series of natural and man-made islands in the middle of Lake Texcoco, located today within modern-day Mexico City.
当西班牙人到达墨西哥时，他们发现了一个以特诺奇蒂特兰为中心的庞大文明，这是一座令人惊叹的城市，建在特斯科科湖中部的一系列自然和人造岛屿上，今天位于现代墨西哥城内。
Tenochtitlán, founded in 1325, rivaled the world’s largest cities in size and grandeur.
特诺奇蒂特兰建于 1325 年，其规模和宏伟程度可与世界上最大的城市相媲美。
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Much of the city was fed by crops grown on large artificial islands called chinampas , which the Aztecs constructed by dredging mud and rich sediment from the bottom of the lake and depositing it over time to form new landscapes.
这座城市的大部分地区都是靠生长在名为“chinampas”的大型人工岛上的农作物来供给的，阿兹特克人通过疏浚湖底的泥土和丰富的沉积物并随着时间的推移将其沉积下来形成新的景观而建造了这些岛屿。
A massive pyramid temple, the Templo Mayor, was located at the city center (its ruins can still be found in the center of Mexico City).
一座巨大的金字塔寺庙——大神庙（Templo Mayor）位于市中心（它的废墟仍然可以在墨西哥城中心找到）。
When the Spaniards arrived, they could scarcely believe what they saw: 70,000 buildings, housing perhaps 200,000–250,000 people, all built on a lake and connected by causeways and canals.
当西班牙人抵达时，他们简直不敢相信自己所看到的一切：70,000 座建筑物，大约可容纳 200,000 至 250,000 人，全部建在湖上，并由堤道和运河连接。
Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a Spanish soldier, later recalled, “When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land, we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments.
西班牙士兵伯纳尔·迪亚兹·德尔·卡斯蒂略后来回忆道：“当我们看到这么多的城市和村庄建在水中，以及其他伟大的城镇建在陆地上时，我们感到很惊讶，说这就像魔法一样。
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Some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream?
有的战士甚至问我们所看到的难道不是梦吗？
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I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.” 30
我不知道如何描述它，就像我们所做的那样，看到以前从未听说过或见过的事情，甚至没有梦想过。” 30
From their island city the Aztecs dominated an enormous swath of central and southern Mesoamerica.
阿兹特克人从他们的岛屿城市统治了中美洲中部和南部的大片地区。
They ruled their empire through a decentralized network of subject peoples that paid regular tribute—including everything from the most basic items, such as corn, beans, and other foodstuffs, to luxury goods such as jade, cacao, and gold—and provided troops for the empire.
他们通过一个分散的臣民网络来统治他们的帝国，这些臣民定期缴纳贡品——包括从最基本的物品，如玉米、豆类和其他食品，到奢侈品，如玉石、可可和黄金——并为帝国提供军队。
But unrest festered beneath the Aztecs’ imperial power, and European conquerors lusted after its vast wealth.
但阿兹特克帝国的权力之下，动乱不断蔓延，欧洲征服者觊觎其巨大的财富。
Hernán Cortés, an ambitious, thirty-four-year-old Spaniard who had won riches in the conquest of Cuba, organized an invasion of Mexico in 1519.
埃尔南·科尔特斯 (Hernán Cortés) 是一位雄心勃勃的 34 岁西班牙人，他在征服古巴的过程中获得了财富，并于 1519 年组织了对墨西哥的入侵。
Sailing with six hundred men, horses, and cannon, he landed on the coast of Mexico.
他带着六百人、马匹和大炮航行，在墨西哥海岸登陆。
Relying on a Native translator, whom he called Doña Marina, and whom Mexican folklore denounces as La Malinche, Cortés gathered information and allies in preparation for conquest.
科尔特斯依靠一位原住民翻译（他称之为多纳·玛丽娜（Doña Marina），墨西哥民间传说称她为拉马林什（La Malinche））收集信息和盟友，为征服做好准备。
Through intrigue, brutality, and the exploitation of endemic political divisions, he enlisted the aid of thousands of Native allies, defeated Spanish rivals, and marched on Tenochtitlán.
通过阴谋、残暴和利用普遍存在的政治分歧，他获得了数千名土著盟友的援助，击败了西班牙对手，并向特诺奇蒂特兰进军。
Aztec dominance rested on fragile foundations and many of the region’s semi-independent city-states yearned to break from Aztec rule.
阿兹特克人的统治基础脆弱，该地区的许多半独立城邦都渴望摆脱阿兹特克人的统治。
Nearby kingdoms, including the Tarascans to the north and the remains of Maya city-states on the Yucatán peninsula, chafed at Aztec power.
附近的王国，包括北部的塔拉斯坎人和尤卡坦半岛上的玛雅城邦遗迹，都对阿兹特克的权力感到愤怒。
Through persuasion, the Spaniards entered Tenochtitlán peacefully.
经过劝说，西班牙人和平进入特诺奇蒂特兰。
Cortés then captured the emperor Montezuma and used him to gain control of the Aztecs’ gold and silver reserves and their network of mines.
随后，科尔特斯俘获了蒙特祖玛皇帝，并利用他控制了阿兹特克人的金银储备及其矿山网络。
Eventually, the Aztecs revolted.
最终，阿兹特克人起义。
Montezuma was branded a traitor, and uprising ignited the city.
蒙特祖玛被贴上叛徒的标签，起义点燃了这座城市。
Montezuma was killed along with a third of Cortés’s men in la noche triste , the “night of sorrows.” The Spanish fought through thousands of Indigenous insurgents and across canals to flee the city, where they regrouped, enlisted more Native allies, captured Spanish reinforcements, and, in 1521, besieged the island city.
蒙特祖玛与科尔特斯的三分之一部下在“la noche triste”（“悲伤之夜”）中被杀。西班牙人击退了数千名土著叛乱分子，穿过运河逃离了这座城市，并在那里重新集结，招募了更多土著盟友，俘获了西班牙增援部队，并于 1521 年围困了这座岛城。
The Spaniards’ eighty-five-day siege cut off food and fresh water.
西班牙人八十五天的围困切断了食物和淡水。
Smallpox ravaged the city.
天花蹂躏了这座城市。
One Spanish observer said it “spread over the people as great destruction.
一位西班牙观察家表示，它“像巨大的破坏一样在人民中蔓延。
Some it covered on all parts—their faces, their heads, their breasts, and so on.
有些人的所有部位都被它覆盖了——脸、头、胸部等等。
There was great havoc.
发生了巨大的破坏。
Very many died of it.
很多人因此而死亡。
.
。
.
。
.
。
They could not move; they could not stir.” 31 Cortés, the Spaniards, and their Native allies then sacked the city.
他们无法动弹；他们无法动弹。” 31 科尔特斯、西班牙人和他们的土著盟友随后洗劫了这座城市。
The temples were plundered and fifteen thousand died.
寺庙被洗劫一万五千人死亡。
After two years of conflict, a million-person-strong empire was toppled by disease, dissension, and a thousand European conquerors.
经过两年的冲突，一个拥有百万人口的帝国因疾病、纷争和一千名欧洲征服者而崩溃。
Farther south, along the Andes Mountains in South America, the Quechuas, or Incas, managed a vast mountain empire.
再往南，沿着南美洲的安第斯山脉，盖丘亚人（或称印加人）管理着一个庞大的山区帝国。
From their capital of Cuzco in the Andean highlands, through conquest and negotiation, the Incas built an empire that stretched around the western half of the South American continent from present day Ecuador to central Chile and Argentina.
印加人从安第斯高地的首都库斯科出发，通过征服和谈判，建立了一个帝国，其疆域延伸到南美大陆的西半部，从今天的厄瓜多尔到智利中部和阿根廷。
They cut terraces into the sides of mountains to farm fertile soil, and by the 1400s they managed a thousand miles of Andean roads that tied together perhaps twelve million people.
他们在山坡上开凿梯田，耕种肥沃的土壤，到了 1400 年代，他们管理了 1000 英里的安第斯公路，将大约 1200 万人联系在一起。
But like the Aztecs, unrest between the Incas and conquered groups created tensions and left the empire vulnerable to invaders.
但与阿兹特克人一样，印加人和被征服群体之间的骚乱造成了紧张局势，使帝国容易受到入侵者的攻击。
Smallpox spread in advance of Spanish conquerors and hit the Incan empire in 1525.
天花在西班牙征服者之前传播开来，并于 1525 年袭击了印加帝国。
Epidemics ravaged the population, cutting the empire’s population in half and killing the Incan emperor Huayna Capac and many members of his family.
流行病肆虐人口，使帝国人口减少一半，印加皇帝瓦伊纳·卡帕克和他的许多家人丧生。
A bloody war of succession ensued.
一场血腥的继承战争随之爆发。
Inspired by Cortés’s conquest of Mexico, Francisco Pizarro moved south and found an empire torn by chaos.
受到科尔特斯征服墨西哥的启发，弗朗西斯科·皮萨罗南下，发现了一个被混乱撕裂的帝国。
With 168 men, he deceived Incan rulers, took control of the empire, and seized the capital city, Cuzco, in 1533.
他率领168人欺骗了印加统治者，控制了帝国，并于1533年占领了首都库斯科。
Disease, conquest, and slavery ravaged the remnants of the Incan empire.
疾病、征服和奴隶制蹂躏着印加帝国的残余。
After the conquests of Mexico and Peru, Spain settled into its new empire.
征服墨西哥和秘鲁后，西班牙建立了新的帝国。
A vast administrative hierarchy governed the new holdings: royal appointees oversaw an enormous territory of landed estates, and Indigenous laborers and administrators regulated the extraction of gold and silver and oversaw their transport across the Atlantic in Spanish galleons.
庞大的行政等级制度统治着新的领地：王室任命的官员监管着大片土地，土著劳工和行政人员负责监管金银的开采，并监督它们用西班牙大帆船横渡大西洋的运输。
Meanwhile, Spanish migrants poured into the New World.
与此同时，西班牙移民涌入新大陆。
During the sixteenth century alone, 225,000 migrated, and 750,000 came during the entire three centuries of Spanish colonial rule.
仅在 16 世纪，就有 225,000 人移民，而在西班牙殖民统治的整个三个世纪期间，就有 750,000 人来到这里。
Spaniards, often single, young, and male, emigrated for the various promises of land, wealth, and social advancement.
西班牙人通常是单身、年轻的男性，他们为了土地、财富和社会进步的各种承诺而移民。
Laborers, craftsmen, soldiers, clerks, and priests all crossed the Atlantic in large numbers.
大批工人、工匠、士兵、职员和牧师纷纷横渡大西洋。
Indigenous people, however, always outnumbered the Spanish, and the Spaniards, by both necessity and design, incorporated Native Americans into colonial life.
然而，土著人民的数量始终超过西班牙人，而西班牙人出于必要和有意，将美洲原住民融入了殖民地生活。
This incorporation did not mean equality, however.
然而，这种合并并不意味着平等。
An elaborate racial hierarchy marked Spanish life in the New World.
复杂的种族等级制度标志着西班牙人在新世界的生活。
Regularized in the mid-1600s but rooted in medieval practices, the Sistema de Castas organized individuals into various racial groups based on their supposed “purity of blood.” Elaborate classifications became almost prerequisites for social and political advancement in Spanish colonial society.
Sistema de Castas 于 1600 年代中期正规化，但植根于中世纪的做法，根据所谓的“血统纯度”将个人分为不同的种族群体。详细的分类几乎成为西班牙殖民社会社会和政治进步的先决条件。
Peninsulares —Iberian-born Spaniards, or españoles —occupied the highest levels of administration and acquired the greatest estates.
半岛人——出生于伊比利亚的西班牙人，或西班牙人——占据了最高的行政级别并获得了最大的地产。
Their descendants, New World-born Spaniards, or criollos , occupied the next rung and rivaled the peninsulares for wealth and opportunity.
他们的后裔，新世界出生的西班牙人，或克里奥尔人，占据了下一个梯级，并与半岛争夺财富和机会。
Mestizos —a term used to describe those of mixed Spanish and Indigenous heritage—followed.
随后出现了混血儿（Mestizos）——一个用来描述西班牙和土著混血儿的术语。
Like the French later in North America, the Spanish tolerated and sometimes even supported interracial marriage.
就像后来北美的法国人一样，西班牙人容忍甚至有时甚至支持异族通婚。
There were simply too few Spanish women in the New World to support the natural growth of a purely Spanish population.
新大陆上的西班牙女性太少，无法支持纯西班牙人口的自然增长。
The Catholic Church endorsed interracial marriage as a moral bulwark against bastardy and rape.
天主教会认可异族婚姻作为反对私生子和强奸的道德堡垒。
By 1600, mestizos made up a large portion of the colonial population.
到 1600 年，混血儿占了殖民地人口的很大一部分。
32 By the early 1700s, more than one third of all marriages bridged the Spanish-Indigenous divide.
32 到 1700 年代初期，超过三分之一的婚姻弥合了西班牙与土著之间的鸿沟。
Separated by wealth and influence from the peninsulares and criollos , mestizos typically occupied a middling social position in Spanish New World society.
由于财富和影响力与半岛和克里奥尔人不同，混血儿通常在西班牙新世界社会中占据中等社会地位。
They were not quite Indios , or Indigenous people, but their lack of limpieza de sangre , or “pure blood,” removed them from the privileges of full-blooded Spaniards.
他们不完全是印第安人（Indios），或土著人，但他们缺乏“纯血统”（limpieza de sangre），使他们无法享受纯种西班牙人的特权。
Spanish fathers of sufficient wealth and influence might shield their mestizo children from racial prejudice, and a number of wealthy mestizos married españoles to “whiten” their family lines, but more often mestizos were confined to a middle station in the Spanish New World.
拥有足够财富和影响力的西班牙父亲可能会保护他们的混血儿孩子免受种族偏见，许多富有的混血儿与西班牙人结婚以“美化”他们的家族血统，但更多时候混血儿被限制在西班牙新世界的中间站。
Enslaved and Indigenous people occupied the lowest rungs of the social ladder.
奴隶和土著人民占据社会阶梯的最底层。
Many manipulated the Sistema de Castas to gain advantages for themselves and their children.
许多人操纵卡斯塔斯制度为自己和孩子谋取利益。
Mestizo mothers, for instance, might insist that their mestizo daughters were actually castizas , or quarter-Indigenous, who, if they married a Spaniard, could, in the eyes of the law, produce “pure” criollo children entitled to the full rights and opportunities of Spanish citizens.
例如，混血母亲可能会坚持认为，她们的混血女儿实际上是卡斯蒂萨人（castizas）或四分之一土著人，如果她们嫁给西班牙人，从法律的角度来看，她们可以生出“纯种”克里奥洛孩子，享有西班牙公民的全部权利和机会。
But “passing” was an option only for the few.
但“通过”只是少数人的选择。
Instead, the massive Native populations within Spain’s New World Empire ensured a level of cultural and racial mixture—or mestizaje —unparalleled in British North America.
相反，西班牙新世界帝国内的大量原住民人口确保了英属北美无与伦比的文化和种族混合（或混血）水平。
Spanish North America wrought a hybrid culture that was neither fully Spanish nor fully Indigenous.
西班牙北美创造了一种混合文化，既不完全是西班牙文化，也不完全是土著文化。
The Spanish not only built Mexico City atop Tenochtitlán, but food, language, and families were also constructed on Indigenous foundations.
西班牙人不仅在特诺奇蒂特兰山顶建造了墨西哥城，而且食物、语言和家庭也是建立在土著基础上的。
In 1531, a poor Indigenous man named Juan Diego reported that he was visited by the Virgin Mary, who came as a dark-skinned Nahuatl-speaking Indigenous woman.
1531 年，一位名叫胡安·迭戈 (Juan Diego) 的贫穷土著男子报告说，圣母玛利亚拜访了他，她是一位黑皮肤、讲纳瓦特尔语的土著妇女。
33 Reports of miracles spread across Mexico and the Virgen de Guadalupe became a national icon for a new mestizo society.
33 有关奇迹的报道传遍墨西哥，瓜达卢佩圣母成为新混血社会的国家象征。
From Mexico, Spain expanded northward.
西班牙从墨西哥向北扩张。
Lured by the promises of gold and another Tenochtitlán, Spanish expeditions scoured North America for another wealthy Indigenous empire.
受到黄金和另一个特诺奇蒂特兰的诱惑，西班牙探险队在北美搜寻另一个富裕的土著帝国。
Huge expeditions, resembling vast moving communities, composed of hundreds of soldiers, settlers, priests, and enslaved people, with enormous numbers of livestock, moved across the continent.
大规模的探险队，就像巨大的移动社区，由数百名士兵、定居者、牧师和奴隶组成，带着大量的牲畜，穿越了整个大陆。
Juan Ponce de León, the conqueror of Puerto Rico, landed in Florida in 1513 in search of wealth and enslaved laborers.
波多黎各的征服者胡安·庞塞·德莱昂于 1513 年登陆佛罗里达州，寻找财富和奴役劳工。
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca joined the Narváez expedition to Florida a decade later but was shipwrecked and forced to embark on a remarkable multiyear odyssey along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and Texas into Mexico.
十年后，阿尔瓦·努涅斯·卡贝萨·德瓦卡加入了前往佛罗里达的纳尔瓦埃斯探险队，但遭遇海难，被迫沿着墨西哥湾和德克萨斯州海岸进入墨西哥，开始了长达数年的非凡冒险。
Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565, and it remains the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in the present-day United States.
佩德罗·梅南德斯·德阿维莱斯 (Pedro Menéndez de Avilés) 于 1565 年在佛罗里达州建立了圣奥古斯丁，它仍然是当今美国最古老的、持续被占领的欧洲定居点。
But without the rich gold and silver mines of Mexico, the plantation-friendly climate of the Caribbean, or the exploitive potential of large Indigenous empires, North America offered little incentive for Spanish officials.
但如果没有墨西哥丰富的金银矿、加勒比地区有利于种植园的气候，或者大型土著帝国的剥削潜力，北美对西班牙官员来说几乎没有什么动力。
Still, Spanish expeditions combed North America.
尽管如此，西班牙探险队还是对北美进行了搜查。
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado pillaged his way across the Southwest.
弗朗西斯科·巴斯克斯·德·科罗纳多一路掠夺西南部。
Hernando de Soto tortured and raped and enslaved his way across the Southeast.
埃尔南多·德索托一路折磨、强奸和奴役了整个东南部。
Soon Spain had footholds—however tenuous—across much of the continent.
很快，西班牙就在非洲大陆的大部分地区站稳了脚跟——尽管很脆弱。
The “discovery” of America unleashed horrors.
美国的“发现”引发了恐怖。
Europeans embarked on a debauching path of death and destructive exploitation that wrought murder and greed and slavery.
欧洲人走上了一条死亡和破坏性剥削的放荡之路，导致了谋杀、贪婪和奴役。
But disease was deadlier than any weapon in the European arsenal.
但疾病比欧洲武器库中的任何武器都更致命。
It unleashed death on a scale never before seen in human history.
它造成的死亡规模是人类历史上前所未见的。
Estimates of the population of pre-Columbian America range wildly.
对前哥伦布时期美洲人口的估计相差很大。
Some argue for as much as 100 million, some as low as 2 million.
有的主张多至1亿，有的主张低至200万。
In 1983, Henry Dobyns put the number at 18 million.
1983 年，亨利·多宾斯 (Henry Dobyns) 估计这一数字为 1800 万。
Whatever the precise estimates, nearly all scholars tell of the utter devastation wrought by European disease.
无论精确的估计如何，几乎所有学者都谈到了欧洲疾病造成的彻底破坏。
Dobyns estimated that in the first 130 years following European contact, 95 percent of Native Americans perished.
多宾斯估计，在欧洲人接触后的头 130 年里，95% 的美洲原住民死亡。
34 (At its worst, Europe’s Black Death peaked at death rates of 35 percent.
34（欧洲黑死病最严重时死亡率高达 35%。
Nothing else in history rivals the American demographic disaster.) A ten-thousand-year history of disease hit the New World in an instant.
历史上没有什么能与美国的人口灾难相媲美。） 一万年的疾病史瞬间席卷了新大陆。
Smallpox, typhus, bubonic plague, influenza, mumps, measles: pandemics ravaged populations up and down the continents.
天花、斑疹伤寒、黑死病、流感、腮腺炎、麻疹：流行病肆虐各大洲的人口。
Wave after wave of disease crashed relentlessly.
一波又一波的疾病无情地袭来。
Disease flung whole communities into chaos.
疾病使整个社区陷入混乱。
Others it destroyed completely.
其他的则被彻底摧毁。
Disease was only the most terrible in a cross-hemispheric exchange of violence, culture, trade, and peoples—the so-called Columbian Exchange—that followed in Columbus’s wake.
继哥伦布之后，疾病只是跨半球的暴力、文化、贸易和人民交换（即所谓的哥伦布交换）中最可怕的。
Global diets, for instance, were transformed.
例如，全球饮食习惯发生了变化。
The Americas’ calorie-rich crops revolutionized Old World agriculture and spawned a worldwide population boom.
美洲富含热量的农作物彻底改变了旧世界的农业，并催生了世界范围内的人口激增。
Many modern associations between food and geography are by products of the Columbian Exchange: potatoes in Ireland, tomatoes in Italy, chocolate in Switzerland, peppers in Thailand, and oranges in Florida are all manifestations of the new global exchange.
食物和地理之间的许多现代联系都是哥伦布交换的副产品：爱尔兰的土豆、意大利的西红柿、瑞士的巧克力、泰国的辣椒和佛罗里达的橙子都是新的全球交换的表现。
Europeans, for their part, introduced their domesticated animals to the New World.
欧洲人则将他们的驯养动物引入了新大陆。
Pigs ran rampant through the Americas, transforming the landscape as they spread throughout both continents.
猪在美洲肆虐，随着它们遍布美洲大陆，改变了地貌。
Horses spread as well, transforming the Native American cultures who adapted to the newly introduced animal.
马也传播开来，改变了适应新引进动物的美洲原住民文化。
Partly from trade, partly from the remnants of failed European expeditions, and partly from theft, Indigenous people acquired horses and transformed Native American life in the vast North American plains.
部分来自贸易，部分来自欧洲探险失败的残余物，部分来自盗窃，原住民获得了马匹，改变了广阔的北美平原上的美洲原住民的生活。
The Europeans’ arrival bridged two worlds and ten thousand years of history largely separated from each other since the closing of the Bering Strait.
欧洲人的到来架起了两个世界的桥梁，自白令海峡关闭以来，这两个世界和一万年的历史基本上彼此分离。
Both sides of the world had been transformed.
世界的两面都发生了转变。
And neither would ever again be the same.
两者都不再一样了。
These two Native American creation stories are among thousands of accounts for the origins of the world.
这两个美洲原住民的创世故事是数以千计的世界起源故事之一。
The Salinian and Cherokee, from what we now call California and the American southeast respectively, both exhibit the common Native American tendency to locate spiritual power in the natural world.
萨里尼亚人和切罗基人，分别来自我们现在所说的加利福尼亚州和美国东南部，都表现出了美国原住民将精神力量置于自然世界的共同倾向。
For both Native Americans and Europeans, the collision of two continents challenged old ideas and created new ones as well.
对于美洲原住民和欧洲人来说，两大洲的碰撞挑战了旧观念，也创造了新观念。
2.
2.
Journal of Christopher Columbus, 1492
克里斯托弗·哥伦布日记，1492 年
First encounters between Europeans and Native Americans were dramatic events.
欧洲人和美洲原住民之间的第一次相遇是戏剧性的事件。
In this account, we see the assumptions and intentions of Christopher Columbus, as he immediately began assessing the potential of these people to serve European economic interests.
在这个叙述中，我们看到了克里斯托弗·哥伦布的假设和意图，因为他立即开始评估这些人为欧洲经济利益服务的潜力。
He also predicted easy success for missionaries seeking to convert these people to Christianity.
他还预测，寻求让这些人皈依基督教的传教士很容易成功。
3.
3.
An Aztec account of the Spanish attack
阿兹特克人对西班牙袭击的描述
This source aggregates a number of early written reports by Aztec authors describing the destruction of Tenochtitlan at the hands of a coalition of Spanish and Indigenous armies.
该来源汇总了阿兹特克作者的一些早期书面报告，描述了西班牙和土著军队联军对特诺奇蒂特兰的破坏。
This collection of sources was assembled by Miguel Leon Portilla, a Mexican anthropologist.
这本资料集由墨西哥人类学家米格尔·莱昂·波蒂利亚 (Miguel Leon Portilla) 收集。
4.
4.
Bartolomé de las Casas describes the exploitation of Indigenous people, 1542
巴托洛梅·德拉斯·卡萨斯 (Bartolomé de las Casas) 描述了对原住民的剥削，1542 年
Bartolomé de Las Casas, a Spanish Dominican priest, wrote directly to the King of Spain hoping for new laws to prevent the brutal exploitation of Native Americans.
西班牙多米尼加牧师巴托洛梅·德拉斯卡萨斯直接写信给西班牙国王，希望制定新法律来防止对美洲原住民的残酷剥削。
Las Casas’s writings quickly spread around Europe and were used as humanitarian justification for other European nations to challenge Spain’s colonial empire with their own schemes of conquest and colonization.
拉斯卡萨斯的著作迅速传遍欧洲，并被其他欧洲国家用作人道主义理由，以自己的征服和殖民计划挑战西班牙的殖民帝国。
5.
5.
Thomas Morton reflects on Native Americans in New England, 1637
托马斯·莫顿 (Thomas Morton) 反思新英格兰的美洲原住民，1637 年
Thomas Morton both admired and condemned aspects of Native American culture.
托马斯·莫顿对美洲原住民文化的某些方面既钦佩又谴责。
In his descriptions, we can find not only information about the people he is describing but also a window into the concerns of Englishmen like Morton who could use descriptions of Native Americans as a means of criticizing English culture.
在他的描述中，我们不仅可以找到有关他所描述的人的信息，还可以了解像莫顿这样的英国人的担忧，他们可以利用对美洲原住民的描述作为批评英国文化的手段。
6.
6.
The story of the Virgin of Guadalupe
瓜达卢佩圣母的故事
Cuauhtlatoatzin was one of the first Aztec men to convert to Christianity after the Spanish invasion.
Cuauhtlatoatzin 是西班牙入侵后第一批皈依基督教的阿兹特克人之一。
Renamed as Juan Diego, he soon thereafter reported an appearance of the Virgin Mary called the Virgin of Guadalupe.
此后不久，他改名为胡安·迭戈，报告了被称为瓜达卢佩圣母的圣母玛利亚的出现。
This apparition became an important symbol for a new native Christianity.
这个幽灵成为新本土基督教的重要象征。
These excerpts are translated from an account first published in Nahuatl by Luis Lasso de la Vega in 1649.
这些摘录翻译自 Luis Lasso de la Vega 于 1649 年首次用纳瓦特尔语发表的一篇报道。
7.
7.
Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca travels through North America, 1542
阿尔瓦·努涅斯·卡贝萨·德瓦卡穿越北美，1542 年
Spanish explorer, Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca, traveled across the Gulf South, from Florida to Mexico.
西班牙探险家阿尔瓦·努涅斯·卡贝萨·德瓦卡 (Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca) 穿越海湾南部，从佛罗里达州到达墨西哥。
As he traveled, Cabeza de Vaca developed a reputation as a faith healer.
在旅行过程中，卡贝扎·德瓦卡赢得了信仰治疗师的声誉。
In his account he claimed several instances of performing miracles, illustrating his spiritual beliefs as well as offering a rare, if perhaps unreliable, glimpse at the life of Native Americans in the area.
在他的叙述中，他声称了几个创造奇迹的例子，说明了他的精神信仰，并提供了一个罕见的、尽管可能不可靠的、对该地区美洲原住民生活的一瞥。
8.
8.
Photograph of Cliff Palace
悬崖宫殿的照片
Native peoples in the Southwest began constructing these highly defensible cliff dwellings in 1190 CE and continued expanding and refurbishing them until 1260 CE before abandoning them around 1300 CE.
西南部的原住民于公元 1190 年开始建造这些高度防御的悬崖住宅，并继续扩建和翻新，直到公元 1260 年，然后在公元 1300 年左右废弃。
Changing climatic conditions resulted in an increased competition for resources that led some groups to ally with their neighbors for both protection and subsistence.
气候条件的变化导致对资源的竞争加剧，导致一些群体为了保护和生存而与邻居结盟。
The circular rooms in the foreground were called kivas and had ceremonial and religious importance for the inhabitants.
前景中的圆形房间被称为“kivas”，对居民来说具有仪式和宗教的重要性。
Cliff Palace had 23 kivas and 150 rooms housing a population of approximately 100 people; the number of rooms and large population has led scholars to believe that this complex may have been the center of a larger polity that included surrounding communities.
悬崖宫有 23 个基瓦和 150 个房间，可容纳大约 100 人；房间的数量和大量的人口使学者们相信，这个建筑群可能是一个包括周围社区在内的更大政体的中心。
9.
9.
Casta painting
Casta painting
The elaborate Sistema de Castas revealed one of the less-discussed effects of Spanish conquest: sexual liaisons and their progeny.
精心设计的卡斯塔斯制度揭示了西班牙征服的较少讨论的影响之一：性关系及其后代。
Casta paintings illustrated the varying degrees of intermixture between colonial subjects, defining them for Spanish officials.
卡斯塔的绘画展示了殖民主题之间不同程度的混合，为西班牙官员定义了它们。
Race was less fixed in the Spanish colonies, as some individuals, through legal action or colonial service, “changed” their race in the colonial records.
西班牙殖民地的种族不太固定，因为一些人通过法律诉讼或殖民服务“改变”了殖民地记录中的种族。
Though this particular image does not, some casta paintings attributed particular behaviors to different groups, demonstrating how class and race were intertwined.
尽管这个特定的图像没有，但一些卡斯塔绘画将特定的行为归因于不同的群体，展示了阶级和种族是如何交织在一起的。
This chapter was edited by Joseph Locke and Ben Wright, with content contributions by L.
本章由 Joseph Locke 和 Ben Wright 编辑，内容由 L.
D.
D .
Burnett, Michelle Cassidy, Kathryn Green, D.
伯内特，米歇尔·卡西迪，凯瑟琳·格林，D.
Andrew Johnson, Joseph Locke, Dawn Marsh, Christen Mucher, Cameron Shriver, Ben Wright, and Garrett Wright.
安德鲁·约翰逊、约瑟夫·洛克、道恩·马什、克里斯汀·穆彻、卡梅伦·施赖弗、本·赖特和加勒特·赖特。
Recommended citation: L.
推荐引用：L.
D.
D .
Burnett et al., “The New World,” in The American Yawp , eds.
伯内特等人，《新世界》，载于《美国雅普》，编辑。
Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018).
约瑟夫·洛克和本·赖特（加利福尼亚州斯坦福：斯坦福大学出版社，2018 年）。